UDC 572

Pan Min Kyu 1, V. Y. Bakholdina 2

1 Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

E-mail: archpmk@mail.ru

2 Lomonosov Moscow State University

Leninskie Gory, MSU 1, building 12, Moscow, 119899, Russia

E-mail: vyu@sumail.ru

The problem of ethnogenesis of the Korean people is the subject of lively scientific discussions. Based on the available data, it is possible to assume ancient contacts of the indigenous population of the Korean Peninsula with the inhabitants of vast regions of Central, East and South-East Asia. None of the existing hypotheses regarding northern migrations, the autochthonous origin of Koreans, or any southern connections can be completely rejected at present. At the same time, there is no specific similarity between Koreans and modern Evenks, which does not allow us to talk about the existence of ancient ethnogenetic relationships between them.

According to Mikhail Vorobyov, a leading Russian expert on Korean history, "the ethnic history of the Korean Peninsula is one of the darkest pages in the history of the region" [1997, p.93]. The problem of the origin of Koreans began to be discussed in the scientific literature at the end of the XIX century, when Korea became more open to the outside world, as a result of which there was a noticeable increase in international interest in the country and its population. Initially, the study of Korean ethnology and anthropology was conducted by European and American researchers. The first book on Koreans and their culture was published in 1874 in France [Dallet, 1874] and again published recently in Korean translation [Ahn Yeun-ryol, Choi Seok-woo, 2001]. C. C. Dalle noted a greater similarity of Koreans with Japanese than with Chinese. He also suggested that the Koreans were descended from northern, possibly Siberian, Mongoloids.

The first descriptions of the anthropological type of Koreans belong to E. Oppert [Oppert, 1881] and E. Baelz [Baelz, 1901, 1907]. E. Oppert believed that the anthropological type of Koreans combines typically Mongoloid features with some non-Mongoloid features.- the Korean type (one of the three he identified in the population of East Asia), which, in his opinion, was characterized by brachycephaly, a narrow long face, a relatively weak protrusion of cheekbones, a weak brow, a rather large body length and a slender build. As M. G. Levin noted, the disadvantage of E. Baltz's works was that they are based on personal impressions and contain almost no measurement data (Levin, 1958).

American H. B. Halbert, after living in Korea for 20 years, wrote two books, the last of which, published in Seoul in 1984 in Korean, also cited the physical characteristics of Koreans [1984]. He also claimed that there is a peculiar non-mongoloid type among Koreans that distinguishes them from both Japanese and Chinese.

After Korea lost its independence in the war with Japan in 1910, Japanese scientists began to conduct research there. Some of these studies are mentioned by M. G. Levin [1958]. Comparison of Koreans, Japanese and Ainu on the basis of anthropomet-

page 154
Itaka Imamura, Juniji Shima, and Mototsuki Kohama (Imamura and Shima, 1935; Kohama, 1959; Kohama et al., 1959) provided statistical data. According to the results of this comparison, the Kinki (Osaka and Kyoto provinces) and Sanya (Central Japan) populations are similar to South Koreans in terms of brachycrania and relative tallness; the Hokuriku (western Japan) and Kanto (prov. Tokyo) is characterized by mesocrania, lower growth, and shows proximity to the Ainu. Imamura Ithaca, Yuniji Shima, and Mototsuki Kohama suggest that in ancient times the inhabitants of the Korean Peninsula were distinguished by brachycrania; in the Bronze Age, some of them migrated to some areas of the Japanese Islands, displacing the autochthons. At the same time, a local Neolithic population, presumably of the Ainu type, was preserved in other areas of Japan.

A significant role in studying the anthropology of Koreans belongs to Russian scientists. N. N. Cheboksary in his work [1982] cites the data of A.M. Zolotarev [1941], who during his ethnographic research in the Amur region also collected anthropological material along the way. In 1947, a group of Koreans working in the fisheries of Kamchatka and the Amur Estuary was examined by G. F. Debets (1949, 1951). They were natives of North Korea, mainly in Hamgyong-pukdo and Hamgyong-namdo provinces; a total of 122 men aged 20 to 60 years.

Extensive data on the anthropology of Koreans are contained in the work of M. G. Levin "Ethnic anthropology and problems of ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Far East" [1958]. His work is based on materials collected in 1946 by an Anthropological expedition of the Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Central Asia, in Korean collective farms in the districts of Samarkand, Tashkent and Kzyl-Orda. A total of 486 men and 99 women were examined. According to surveys conducted by M. G. Levin, Koreans of the Far East are, as a rule, immigrants from North Korea, and people related to their origin with South Korea are a rare exception. Thus, M. G. Levin's materials refer to North Koreans.

Starting with the works of E. Oppert, E. Baelz, and H. Halbert, the opinion about the anthropological heterogeneity of Koreans and about the existence of significant differences between the populations of North and South Korea has spread in the scientific literature [Kubo Takesi, 1917]. M. G. Levin drew attention to the lack of comparative materials on North and South Koreans belonging to the same researcher or methodically enough comparable to each other. Geographical variations of individual traits in this population are not sufficiently studied, so we can assume that the anthropological composition of modern Koreans is relatively homogeneous, and when discussing the problem of the origin of the Korean people, we can talk about the Korean Peninsula as a whole.

According to the generally accepted anthropological classification, Koreans belong to the Far Eastern race (Roginsky and Levin, 1978). They show great similarity to the northern Chinese, but differ from them, in addition to brachycephaly (cranial index 84-85), a number of other features. This is a more abundant hair cover, a larger width of the nose, thickness of the lips, etc., indicating the presence of elements of the South Asian anthropological variant in the anthropological type of Koreans. At the same time, they are characterized by large absolute face size and some depigmentation, which may indicate connections with North Asian Mongoloids.

After Korea gained independence in 1945, Korean scientists began to conduct research in the fields of physical anthropology, philology, ethnography, archeology, and history. In their works, the problem of the origin of the population of the Korean Peninsula occupies one of the central places. Archaeological findings indicate that the peninsula was already inhabited during the Paleolithic period, and in the Neolithic era, ancient human sites were common throughout its territory.

There is no consensus on the origin of Koreans in science. There are three main hypotheses - mestizo, autochthonous and northern. The possibility of a South Korean ancestry is hardly considered at the moment. Song Jin-tae [1954a-b] believed that the Korean ethnic group was formed as a result of mixing different tribes that lived in ancient times on the territory of Korea. At the turn of II-I thous. Ancient Korean tribes were settled in the Korean Peninsula, as well as in the southern and central parts of modern Northeast China (Manchuria). Song Jin-tae assumed that the northern, central, and inner southern regions of South Korea were inhabited by Siberian tribes, while the southern Korean coast was inhabited by a few groups related to the peoples of Indochina and Japan. In the middle of the first millennium BC, as a result of the unification of the Puyo, Yemek, Suksin, Joseon, Okjo, E, Samhan, Goguryeo, etc. tribes. There was one of the first state formations on the Korean peninsula-Ancient Joseon. It lost its independence and was conquered by the Chinese in 108 BC. e. In order to politically consolidate the conquered territory, four prefectures were formed. The main one was Nannan, with its capital on the site of Pyongyang, where a thriving Chinese community soon emerged. From the very beginning of their creation, the Chinese prefectures met with active opposition from local Korean tribes, during which contacts between them were strengthened. In the subsequent era, during the existence of the three Korean states (I century BC-VII century AD) and after

page 155
their unification, the process of forming a single Korean ethnic group took place, which ended in the Joseon period (Emperor Sejong, 1418 - 1450). In the future, the consolidation of the Korean people was constantly strengthened. Thus, Song Jin Tae's mestizo hypothesis suggests the possibility of only very ancient mixing that occurred no later than the beginning of the first millennium BC, after which consolidation processes became dominant.

In the DPRK, since the 1950s, historians have been working on the problem of the origin of Koreans; since the 1960s, after the discovery of human skeletons in Nazinchodo, anthropological materials have been actively involved in its solution. Choi Myung Hak (1955) made a morphological comparison of the skeletons of ancient and modern Koreans. Fragments of 14 human skeletons were found at the Nazinchodo site. These finds date from the Late Neolithic (II millennium BC) to the Early Bronze Age (early I millennium BC). Skeleton No. 1 probably belonged to a 60-70 - year-old female with a body length of only 124 cm; skeleton No. 10 belonged to a 20-year-old male with a body length of The body size is 162 cm. Choi Myung Hak came to the conclusion that the morphology of these people did not differ from modern Koreans. He also found the similarity of skeleton No. 1 with anthropological materials from the Paleolithic period of Japan.

Scientists of the DPRK are supporters of the autochthonous hypothesis, according to which the modern population of the Korean Peninsula has very deep local roots dating back to the Bronze Age or even the Paleolithic. From the point of view of this hypothesis, they also interpret paleoanthropological finds. The following anthropological succession is established: Middle Pleistocene man from Okfo [Kim Shin-kyu et al., 1985a] - Middle Upper Pleistocene man from Dokchon [Archaeological Research..., 1978] - man from Yeongok (48-43 thousand years ago) [Jung Jae-hwon et al., 1986] - man from Mandal (30-25 thousand years ago).n.) [Kim Shin Kyu et al., 1985b] - Neolithic population [Gi Ha Century, Zhang Woo Jin, 1973] - Bronze Age population [Gi Ha Century, 1965] - modern Koreans.

According to Wek Gi Ha and Jang Woo Jin, it is possible to trace both cultural and historical continuity between the ancient and modern populations of the Korean Peninsula [Wek Gi Ha, 1965; Wek Gi Ha, Zhang Woo Jin, 1973; Zhang Woo Jin, 1979]. The man whose skeleton, dating from 12 - 2.3 thousand years AGO, was found in Bomgusok, according to Wek Gi Ha, is very close to modern Koreans, but differs from the Chinese and Japanese.

Most scientists in South Korea support the hypothesis of the northern origin of Koreans. It is largely based on the lack of direct archaeological continuity between the Paleolithic and Neolithic in the Korean Peninsula, where no Mesolithic materials have been found, which are usually transitional between the Paleolithic and Neolithic. According to the proponents of this hypothesis, in the Late Paleolithic, due to climate change, the ancient Paleolithic population of the peninsula disappeared or migrated to some other territories, which explains the chronological lacuna in archaeological materials. In the Neolithic, the Korean Peninsula was inhabited by Paleoasiatic tribes, who left cultural monuments with dimpled-combed ceramics. Kim Jong-bae [1973] believes that the origins of this culture should be sought in Siberia, where similar traditions of making tools and ceramic dishes are found. According to Kim Jong-bae, the legend of Tangun, the founder of the Joseon state, who, according to the myth, was the son of a heavenly ruler and a female bear, may be based on the ideas characteristic of some Siberian Paleoasiatic peoples. The economy of the Neolithic Paleoasians of the Korean Peninsula was based on gathering, fishing, and hunting small animals. At the end of the Neolithic, the ancient Paleoasiatic tribes were replaced by Proto-Altaic ones, carriers of a culture with smooth Bronze Age ceramics, which are identified with the well-known Emek tribe from the chronicles. One of the most archaeologically confirmed migrations occurred ca. 12 thousand years AGO and was associated with the emergence of the bronze culture and agricultural skills. The aliens may have partially mixed with the local ancient population (Kim Jung Bae, 1985).

According to Kim Jung Bae, the source of Neolithic cultures on the Korean Peninsula could be two regions of Siberia: according to archaeological data, the carriers of Siberian traditions came to the western and southern regions from the territories adjacent to the lake. Lake Baikal, and in the north-eastern regions-from the Far East. Later Iron Age cultures also show similarities with Siberian ones and significantly differ from Chinese ones [Ibid.]. Thus, Kim Jong-bae admits the possibility of repeated population changes on the Korean Peninsula since the Neolithic, and considers Siberia as the source of each new migration wave.

There is also an opinion, with which Kim Jong-bae partially agrees, that the chronological gap between the Paleolithic and Neolithic on the Korean Peninsula is not so large as to seriously speak of a" cultural vacuum " at this time. In addition, the development of culture has its own patterns and specifics in different territories, which also needs to be taken into account.

According to Park Sung Joo, in the Paleolithic, the inhabitants of the Korean Peninsula were isolated, which was broken in the Neolithic, when from the lake side. New migrants came to Lake Baikal. A later population was formed as a result of mixing of alien and autochthonous tribes [Pak Song-joo, 1990, 1992, 2004,

page 156

Epochal dynamics of the cranial index of the Korean Peninsula population (based on data from Yi Kyung-soo [2002]). 1-Upper Paleolithic; 2-Neolithic; 3-Early Bronze Age; 4-Late Bronze Age; 5-Iron Age; 6-Three Korean States era; 7-Goryeo-Joseon era; 8-modern.

2005]. The hypothesis of a possible change in the population of the peninsula at the Paleolithic-Neolithic border is confirmed by paleoanthropological data. And Kyung-soo [2002] conducted a study of skulls belonging to different historical periods. According to this author, the Upper Paleolithic inhabitants of the Korean Peninsula were significantly different from the population of later times. The main differences are observed in the shape of the brain skull - the later ones are shorter, wider and higher, and the cranial index is significantly higher (see figure).

Kimjong-hak (1964, 1966, 1985) studied in detail the question of the origin of Koreans according to linguistics, physical anthropology, ethnography, and archeology. He also believes that there are Siberian elements in Korean culture, and agrees with Song Jin Tae and Kim Jung Bae about the proximity of Koreans to Tungusic-speaking peoples, but at the same time emphasizes that their ancestors lived separately for a long time. Kim Jung Hak came to the conclusion that there is some Paleoasiatic or Paleo-Siberian component in the anthropological type of Koreans.

In 2001. Han Seung Ho and his colleagues compared Koreans with 18 other ethnic groups based on non-metric variations of the skeleton and skull. According to the results of the analysis, Koreans were closer to Kazakhs and Mongols than to Chinese and Japanese (Han Seung Ho et al., 2001).

Ho Kyung-seok et al. compare the odontological characteristics of the ancient population of the Korean Peninsula (Gaya State, c. 1,600 BC, and the Goryeo-Joseon era, 1,000-300 BC) and the modern one. The ancient material consisted of 1,085 teeth belonging to 71 individuals; the modern sample consisted of 96 individuals (1,397 teeth). Five measurement characteristics and nine non-metric parameters were obtained for each tooth (Ho Kyung-seok et al., 1999). In general, according to odontological data, a fairly high degree of differences between the ancient and modern populations can be stated, which indicates in favor of either the migration or mestizo hypothesis of the origin of Koreans.

The northern migration hypothesis also has its opponents. Thus, Choi John Phil (1991) denies the possibility of Paleoasiatic tribes from Siberia influencing the formation of ancient archaeological cultures of the Korean Peninsula. He stressed that the issue of cultural continuity in Korea should be considered with caution.

A common place of hypotheses about the origin of the Korean people is the position of the significant role of the Tungus tribes in its ethnogenesis. Meanwhile, researchers have different ideas about them. Thus, according to Kim Won Ryong (1986), the ancient Tungus are one of the Paleoasiatic tribes. He also believes that from the end of the Paleolithic to the beginning of the Neolithic, there was a cultural gap lasting for 2 000 - 3 000 I agree with Kim Jung Bae about the Tunguska or Paleoasiatic origin of the Neolithic population of the Korean Peninsula.

The problem of possible Tungusic roots of the Korean people was raised in his works by the South Korean researcher Song Bo-gi [1985, 1988, 1989]. He compared literature data on the morphology and genetics of different groups of Mongoloids and showed that Koreans are anthropologically closer to the Chinese than to the Tungus and Paleoasians.

The ideas of S. M. Shirokogorov and his work "The Social System of the Northern Tungus" (Shirokogoroff, 1929) greatly influenced the ideas of Korean scientists about the Tungus and their role in the ethnogenesis of Koreans. In this work, he writes that in the third millennium BC, the Korean Peninsula, as in all of Northeast Asia, was dominated by Paleoasians. After the widespread spread of the Tungusic tribes, the Paleoasiatic ones gradually disappeared or mixed with them. These issues are also discussed in detail in the works of M. G. Levin [1958] and A. P. Okladnikov [1950a, b].

It is difficult to compare anthropological data on modern Koreans and Tunguses (Evenks, Evens, and Lamuts), because the latter are quite heterogeneous in anthropological terms. The Baikal anthropological type, which is distinguished among the Tunguses of Siberia, is represented in two variants - dolicho-and brachycephalic (Levin, 1958). The first one, which is widespread among the Evenks of the Northern Baikal region, was described by Ya. Ya. Roginsky [1934].

page 157
A craniological series of Evenks from the Northern Baikal region (collected by Ya. Ya. Roginsky, M. G. Levin, and G. F. Debets in 1927 and 1948) was included in a recent multivariate statistical study (Bakholdina, 2007). It turned out that the Evenki series occupies a separate, marginal position relative to other Mongoloid series. We can only talk about a very small degree of proximity of the Evenks to the Mongols, Chukchi and Eskimos. The marginal position of the Evenki series is largely determined by the shape of the brain skull - very long and low (cranial index - 75.4, height-transverse index - 90.0) [Ibid.]. Given the pronounced brachycrania of modern Koreans (cranial index more than 84.0), it is difficult to imagine as their ancestors a population similar to the Evenks of the Northern Baikal region. However, it is the Baikal region that is considered by many Korean researchers as a region where one should look for the ancestors of modern Koreans. One could try to explain the emergence of Korean brachycephaly by epochal processes of brachycephalization, but then it remains unclear why these processes were not affected by the Tunguses themselves. At the same time, Evenks, like Koreans, are characterized by large absolute face sizes, but this feature distinguishes many North Asian Mongoloid groups and is not specific to Evenks.

Thus, according to anthropological data, it is not possible to directly link Koreans with modern Tungus people. This connection, however, is unlikely to be established with a hypothetical ancestral fossil population, even if real craniological material is available. As shown by the research of Yu. G. Rychkov, any ancient population can be preserved in the present only in the form of a whole system of daughter populations [1973]. That is why the task of restoring direct continuity between the ancient and modern populations of a given region is so difficult.

Taking into account the geographical position of the Korean Peninsula, as well as the data of archeology, history, ethnography and linguistics, it should be recognized that the ancient ethnogenesis of the Korean people could be connected with Central, Eastern, and South-Eastern Asia. This is also confirmed by recent studies of geneticists: 70-80% of the mitochondrial DNA variants of Koreans bring them closer to the population of Northeast Asia, and 20-30%-to the population of Southern China and Southeast Asia [Yi Hong-kyu, 2003; Kim Wook, Kim Jong-ryol, 2005].

In conclusion, we can say that the problem of the ethnogenesis of the Korean people is still the subject of scientific discussions. In the history of the peninsula, there were phases of long-term isolation, which were followed by periods of intense external migrations and mutual influences (Vorob'ev, 1997). The analysis of individual stages of the ethnogenesis of Koreans, taking into account the specifics of each of them, will probably become the task of further research in the field of paleoanthropology, archeology, history and population genetics of the population of the Korean Peninsula.

List of literature

Ahn Yeun-ryul, Choi Seok-woo Hanguk by cheonju gehwaes (History of Catholicism in Korea). - Seoul: Hanguk gehwaesa yonguso, 2001. - 278 p. (in cor. yaz.).

Archaeological research of Dokcheon-Seungrisan // Dokcheon-Seungrisan dongulyuzhok bagulbogo. - Pyongyang, 1978. - Issue 11. - p. 6-58 (in cor. yaz.).

Variability and taxonomic structure of signs of the human craniofacial system, Moscow: Knizhny dom "Universitet", 2007, 168 p. (in Russian)

The Gi Ha century. Anthropological study of the skeleton from Bomygusok, Musai / / Kogo minsok nonmunjip. - Pyongyang, 1965. - Issue 65 (3). - pp. 50-54 (in cor. yaz.).

Wek Gi Ha, Jang Woo Jin. Antropologicheskaya kharakteristika skul'pov koreytsev [Anthropological characteristics of Korean skulls]. Koe minsok nonmunjip, Pyongyang, 1973, issue 5, pp. 27-64 (in cor. yaz.).

Vorob'ev M. V. Korea to the second third of the seventh century. - St. Petersburg: Petersburg. Oriental Studies, 1997. -432 p.

Debets G. F. Antropologicheskie issledovaniya na Kamchatke [Anthropological research in Kamchatka]. - 1949. - Issue 5. - p. 3-18.

Debets G. F. Antropologicheskie issledovaniya v Kamchatskoi oblasti [Anthropological Studies in the Kamchatka Region], Moscow: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1951, 264 p.

Zolotarev A.M. Antropologicheskie issledovaniya v Priamurye [Anthropological research in the Amur region] / / Kratkieye soobshchie o nauchnykh rabotakh NII i Muzeya antropologii pri MSU za 1938-1939 gg. - Moscow: Izd-vo Mosk. gosudarstvennogo un-ta, 1941. - pp. 43-78.

And Kyung Soo. Hanbando yuzheokchulto ingol yong-gu-namne dugegoly sidebel gyecheukjok byeong-hwae daehan biege (Comparative study of the craniometric characteristics of the Korean population of different historical periods). - Seoul: Sungyungwan daehakge, 2002. - 126 p. (in cor. yaz.).

And Hong Kyu. The origin of Koreans according to DNA data / / Baikal, Hanminzoky givonyl chhazaso (Baikal and the search for the origin of Koreans). Seoul: Chonsin Sagesa Publ., 2003, pp. 213-240 (in Russian).

Kim Won Ryong. Hanguk gogohakgeseol (General Archaeology of Korea). Seoul: Iljisa Publ., 1986, 293 p. (in cor. yaz.).

Kim Shin Kyu, Kim Kyo Kyung, Wek Gi Ha, Zhang Woo Jin, Seo Guk Tae. Archaeological survey of Dehwendon, Okfo district / / Pyongyang bugun dongul yujok palgul bogo. - Pyongyang, 1985a. - Vol. 14. - p. 69-119 (in cor. yaz.).

Kim Shin-kyu, Kim Kyo-kyung, Wek Gi-ha, Zhang Woo-jin, Seo Guk-tae. An archaeological study of the human site in the Seung-ho area / / Pyongyang bugun dongul yujok palgul bogo. - Pyongyang, 1985b. - Vol. 14. - p. 2-68 (in cor. yaz.).

Kim Wook, Kim Jung Ryul. Variations of mitochondrial DNA and the study of the origin of Koreans / / Goguryeo chedan yong-gu cheonso. - Seoul, 2005. - Vol. 13. - p. 105 (in cor. yaz.).

page 158
Kim Jung Bae. Hanguk minjok munhwae wonryu (The Origin of Korean culture). - Seoul: Goryeo daehakge, 1973. -266 p. (in cor. yaz.).

Kim Jung Bae. The origin of Koreans according to historical chronicles and archaeological data / / Hanguksa ron. Seongnam Publ., 1985, vol. 14. - p. 43-72 (in cor. yaz.).

Kim Jung Hak. History of the emergence of Koreans / / Hanguk munhwasa daegae (History of Korean Culture). Seoul: Goryeo daehakge minjok munhwa yonguso, 1964, Issue 1, pp. 316-452 (in Russian).

Kim Jung Hak. The people of Korea according to archaeological data / / Baeksan hakpo. Seoul, 1966, Issue 1, pp. 133-150 (in Russian).

Kim Jung Hak. The origin of Koreans according to the data of archeology and historical chronicles / / Hanguksa ron. Seongnam Publ., 1985, vol. 14. - p. 43-72 (in cor. yaz.).

Levin M. G. Etnicheskaya antropologiya i problemy etnogeneza narodov Dal'nego Vostoka [Ethnic anthropology and problems of ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Far East].

Okladnikov A. P. To the study of the initial stages of formation of the peoples of Siberia: (Population of the Baikal region in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age) / / SE. - 1950a. - N 2. - p. 47-50.

Okladnikov A. P. Neolithic and Bronze Age of the Baikal region: Historical and archaeological research, ch. 1 - 2 // MIA. - 1950b. - N 18. - p. 241-258.

Park Sung Joo. Questions of the origin of Koreans / / Chungbuk sahak. - Zhundzhu, 1990. - Issue 3. - p. 1-20 (in cor. yaz.).

Park Sung Joo. Study of the physical characteristics of the population of Ancient Joseon / / Guksakwan nonchon. Seongnam, 1992, issue 33, pp. 73-102 (in cor. yaz.).

Park Sung Joo. Ancient people of the Korean Peninsula / / Hanguk kusokki hakpo. Seoul, 2004, Issue 7, pp. 41-51 (in Russian).

Park Sung Joo. Fossil people of the Korean Peninsula / / Hanguk kusokki hakpo. Seoul, 2005, issue 11, pp. 13-24 (in Russian).

Materials on the anthropology of the Tunguses of the Northern Baikal region // Anthropological Journal, 1934, issue 3, pp. 105-126.

Roginsky Ya. Ya., Levin M. G. Antropologiya [Anthropology], Moscow: Higher School of Economics, 1978, 528 p.

Rychkov Yu. G. The system of ancient human isolates in Northern Eurasia in the light of problems of population stability and evolution: Search and solutions on the path of population genetics // Questions of anthropology. 1973, Issue 44, pp. 3-22.

Song Bo Gi. The origin of Koreans according to physical anthropology / / Hanguksa ron. Seongnam Publ., 1985, vol. 14. - p. 4-72 (in cor. yaz.).

Song Bo Gi. Hanguk gokgihak yeongguy giljabi (Guide to studying the paleoarchaeology of Korea). Seoul: Yeonse daehakge chulpanbu, 1988, 249 p. (in cor. yaz.).

Song Bo Gi. The origin of Koreans according to physical anthropology / / Guksakwan nonchon. Seongnam, 1989, issue 4, pp. 1-32 (in Russian).

Song Jin Tae. Joseon minjok munhwae yeong-gu (Learning Korean Culture). - Seoul: Elu munhwasa, 1954a. -356 p. (in cor. yaz.).

Song Jin Tae. Joseon minjok seolhwan yeong-gu (Korean mythological representations). - Seoul: Elu munhwasa, 1954. - 228 p. (in cor. yaz.).

Song Jin Tae. Joseon minjoksa garon (Review of Korean History). - Seoul: Elu munhwasa, 1954. - 308 p. (in cor. yaz.).

Halbert H. B. Hanku Honon (History of the Empire of Korea) / trans. translated from English. Shin Bok Ryong, Seoul: Pyeongminsa Publ., 1984, 453 p. (in cor. yaz.).

Han Seung Ho, Park Dae Kyun, Yi Woo Yeon, Yi Joon Hwi, Choi Byung Yeon, Go Ki seok, Kim Hee Jin, Park Sung Joo. Nonmetrical characteristics of Korean skulls / / Daehan jezhil inryuhakhvae. Seoul, 2001, Issue 14 (2), pp. 117-126 (in Russian).

Ho Kyung Seok, Oh Hyun Joo, Moon Hyun Sun, Ban Min Kyu, Choi Jung hoon, Kim Gi dok, Baek Doo Jin, Go Gi seok, Han Seung ho, Jung Rak Hee, Park Sung Joo, Kim Hee Jin. Anthropological characteristics of the teeth of the ancient and modern population of Korea. Seoul, 1999, Issue 12 (2), pp. 223-234 (in Russian).

Cheboksary, N. N. Ethnic Anthropology of China. Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1982, 301 p. (in Russian)

Zhang Woo-jin. Odontological characteristics of Koreans / / Kogo minsok nonmunjip. - Pyongyang, 1979. - Issue 7. - pp. 10-44 (in cor. yaz.).

Jung Jae Hwi, Yoon Jin, Kim Geun Sik, Yoo Jung Gil. Yengok donggulyuzhok (Yengok Cave Site). - Pyongyang: Kimilson jonghap daehak chulpansa, 1986. - 87 p. (in cor. yaz.).

Choi John Phil. Anthropological data and the origin of Korean culture / / Hanguk sangosa hakpo. - Seoul, 1991. - Issue 8. - p. 7-43 (in cor. yaz.).

Choi Myung Hak. Anthropological examination of bone remains from Nazinchodo / / Najin Chhodo wonsi yujok palgul bogo. - Pyongyang, 1955. - Issue 1. - p. 2-61 (in cor. yaz.).

Baelz E, von. Menschenrassen Ost-Asiens mit spezieller Rucksicht auf Japan. Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fur Anthropologic, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte // Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie. - Braunschweig, 1901. - Bd. 33, H. 3. -S. 116 - 190.

Baelz E, von. Zur Vor- und Urgeschichte Japans // Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie. - Braunschweig, 1907. - Bd. 39, H.3. - S. 23 - 67.

Dallet C.C. Histore de l'Eglse de Coree. - P.: Librairie Victor Palme, 1874. - 615 p.

Imamura Itaka, Shima Junizhi. Racial relations among Eatern Asitic peoples based upon male skills // J. of the Antropological Society of Tokyo, 1935. - Vol. 50, N 569. - P. 45 - 89.

Kohama Mototsky. Physical comparison between Ainu and Japanse: Somatometrical Studies of the Ainu and Japanse // Transaction of the 15 General Assembly of the Japan Medical Congress. - Tokyo, 1959. -P. 34 - 56.

Kohama Mototsky, Kamada Natsuo, Furuya Takeshi, Tsubaki Ichiro. Physical Antropology of Korean Emigrants in Japan // J. of the Antropological Society of Nippon. - 1959. -Vol. 67, N720. - P. 54 - 79.

Kubo Takesi. Physical antropological study of the Korean people // China Medical J. - 1917. - Vol. 31. - P. 24 - 56.

Oppert E.J. Ein Verschlossense Land: Reisen nach Korea. -Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1881. - S. 21 - 49.

Shirokogoroff S.M. Social organisation of the nothern Tungus, with introductory chapters concerning geographical distribution and history of these groups. - Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1929. - 427 p.

The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 05.02.08.

page 159

Permanent link to this publication: