I. P. LEBEDEVA

Doctor of Economics

Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Keywords: Japan, population aging, pensions, health care, employment, social activity

In Japan, the rapid aging of the population, called the "silver tsunami", is taking place. Currently, the proportion of people over 65 years of age is a quarter of the population, and by 2060 it will rise to almost 40%. This poses very difficult challenges for Japanese society. On the one hand, it is necessary to provide senior citizens of the country with a decent level of pensions and appropriate medical care, and on the other-to create conditions for them to lead an active lifestyle and feel like full-fledged members of society. So far, Japan has generally been quite successful in meeting these challenges, but the problem is that maintaining a decent standard of living for senior citizens is becoming increasingly burdensome both for the state budget and for society as a whole. So, if in 2015 there were 2.3 persons of working age per one elderly Japanese, then in 2060 this figure will be only 1.3.

The problem of population aging is faced by many highly developed countries, but in Japan it is particularly acute. Japan is ahead of other developed countries not only in terms of the rate of population aging, but also in terms of the share of senior citizens in the total population. So, according to data for 2013, the share of people over the age of 65 in the total population was: in the USA - 14.0%, Great Britain-17.5%, France-17.9%, Germany-21.1%, Italy-21.1%, Japan-25.1%'.

By the end of 2013, the number of Japanese people over the age of 65 was 31,900,000, with approximately 4.5 million more elderly women than men (18,200,000 and 13,700,000, respectively).². While Japan's population has started to decline since 2011 (peaking at 128 million 57 thousand in 2010, falling to 127 million 515 thousand in 2012 and 127 million 298 thousand in 2013), ³ the number of senior citizens continues to increase. According to experts ' calculations, this process will continue until 2043, when the number of elderly people will reach a peak of 38 million 780 thousand people. In the future, this indicator will begin to decline, but the aging of Japanese society will continue. It is expected that the share of senior citizens in the population structure will increase to 29.6% by 2025, to 39.4% by 2055, and to 39.9% by 2060.

The rapid aging of Japanese society is associated with a number of reasons. First, Japan has achieved the highest life expectancy in the world. Thus, the average life expectancy for men increased from 59.5 years in 1950 to 79.94 years in 2012, and for women-from 63 years to 86.41. By 2060, these figures are expected to increase to 84.19 years and 90.93 years, respectively. ⁵ Second, in recent years, the aging process in Japanese society has accelerated, as millions of people born during the first post-war baby boom (1947-1949), which was extremely different from the first post - war baby boom, have begun to enter the "elderly" category. high by-

indicators of the birth rate. Third, under the influence of a number of factors (such as a significant increase in the standard of living, an increase in the level of education of Japanese women and an increase in their social status, an increasing westernization of the lifestyle of Japanese youth, etc.), the country is experiencing a steady decline in the birth rate (number of births per 1 thousand people): from 28.1 in 1950. up to 8.2 in 2012 ⁶

In Japan, the process of rapid population aging is called the "silver tsunami", which reflects not only its scale and speed, but also the severity of the socio-economic problems it generates.

Among the wide range of problems associated with the rapid aging of the Japanese population, the most important, of course, is the problem of social security for senior citizens. According to the country's Constitution, every citizen is guaranteed the right to a decent life, including in old age. And the task of the State is to

create conditions for senior citizens to enjoy the fruits of economic prosperity, especially since it was thanks to their efforts that the foundation was laid for Japan's transformation from a poor, dilapidated country to a powerful economic and scientific and technical power.

The burden on the State to meet these obligations is very significant and continues to increase. Thus, in the period from 1995 to 2014, total state budget expenditures on social security increased from 14.5 trillion yen to 30.5 trillion yen, or 2.1 times, and their share in the budget increased from 18.5% to 28.0%, respectively ^.7 At the same time, it is the rapid aging of the population that has led to such a significant increase in these indicators. In recent years, the share of pension payments and medical care expenses for senior citizens has already accounted for about 2/3 of the total budget expenditures on the social sphere and, according to forecasts, will continue to grow.

PENSION PROVISION

First of all, let us turn to the issues of pension provision. The main part of the funds allocated for the support of senior citizens of the country goes to pay pensions - about 75-80%.

For most older Japanese, pensions are the main source of current income. Thus, according to the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, for almost 2/3 of citizens of this category, pensions are not only the main, but also, in fact, the only source of income, and in the income of about 20% they make up more than 80% ^of the population. This shows how important the smooth functioning of the pension system is for the fate of a huge number of people. Meanwhile, this system has been experiencing very serious difficulties for quite some time.

Without going into details, we will only note that the foundations of the modern pension system in Japan were laid in the early 1960s. Before that, there were two pension schemes in the country: one for employees of central and local government institutions, as well as teachers and employees of private schools and universities (kesai kumiai nankin - mutual aid association pensions), and the second for employees of private enterprises (kosei nankin-welfare pensions). In 1961, the Law on Universal Health and Pension Insurance was passed, and they were supplemented by another scheme-the kokumin nankin, or national pension, which covered all those who did not fall under the first two schemes (the self-employed, fishermen and farmers, the unemployed, students, housewives, etc.). It has become all-encompassing.

In 1986, a radical restructuring of the pension system was carried out, the essence of which was as follows. Two types of pensions were established : the basic pension (kiso nankin), which does not depend on the level of income of the insured citizens, and additional pensions, which directly depend on the income of the insured. All residents of the country over the age of 20 were required to make monthly contributions to the kokumin nankin system, the amount of which is the same for all citizens. The state, in turn, guaranteed every citizen the right to receive a basic pension upon reaching the age of 65 (provided that the insurance period is at least 10 years), the actual amount of which depended on the terms of insurance. At the same time, all insured persons were divided into three categories::

- the first is students and self-employed people who pay their dues on their own;

- second - employees of private companies and government agencies;

- third-housewives for whom their husbands contribute (belonging to the second category), provided that the annual income of their spouses does not exceed 1.3 million yen.

Citizens who were previously insured under the kesai kumiai and Kosei nankin systems (i.e., persons belonging to the second category) automatically became signatories of the basic pension, since their registration in this system was the responsibility of their employers. Their spouses who were unemployed or employed but received less than 1.3 million yen per year9 were automatically included in ^the system. Other citizens were required to connect to this system through municipalities.

Persons insured in kesai kumiai and Kosei nankin, in addition to the basic pension, receive additional pensions provided for by the insurance conditions in these systems.

Japan's pension system has operated on these principles until very recently.

Its largest link is kokumin nankin. As of March 2013, it insured 67 million 360 thousand people, including 18 million 640 thousand people in the first category, 39 million 120 thousand people in the second category, and 9 million 600 thousand people in the third category. The number of recipients of the basic pension was 29 million 700 thousand people, and the average monthly pension was 58 thousand. yen. Contributions to kokumin nankin are gradually increasing: for example, in 2013 they amounted to 15,040 thousand yen per month, and in 2015-15,590 thousand yen.¹⁰

The next system in terms of the number of subscribers is Kosei nankin: as of March 2013 in

it insured 34 million 720 thousand people, and the number of recipients of this pension was 15 million 230 thousand people. The amount of contributions is set by the State as a percentage of the insured's income and is paid in equal shares by employees and employers. In 2013, the average contribution was 17.020% of the insured's income (including payments in kokumin nankin), and the average pension amount was 160 thousand yen. Contributions are increased annually in April by 0.364% (in 2017 they may already amount to 18.3%). Pension starts to be paid at the age of 65 ¹¹.

The third link of the pension system - kesai kumiai-is distinguished by both more favorable insurance conditions and higher pensions. As of March 2013, the number of subscribers to kesai kumiai was 4 million 339 thousand people, and the number of pension recipients was 2 million 820 thousand people. Contributions here are also paid in equal shares by employers and employees. In 2013, they amounted to: for employees of central and local government agencies - 16.57% of income, and for employees of private schools and universities-13.65% (including contributions to kokumin nankin). The average size of pensions was 210 - 219 thousand yen and 207 thousand yen, respectively. Pensions are also paid here from the age of 65 ¹².

At the expense of the central budget, the state subsidizes 1/2 of the basic pension, as well as covers administrative costs in all three pension schemes. The other half of the basic pension and the pensions of Kosei nankin and Kesai kumiai are covered by the contributions of the insured.

As the ratio between the number of contributors and the number of recipients of pensions is steadily changing in favour of the latter due to the rapid ageing of the population, the pension system is facing increasing financial difficulties. The most acute situation has developed in kokumin nankin. In addition to the continuous increase in the number of recipients of the basic pension, the financial problems of this system are aggravated by the phenomenon of non-payment of contributions. The law provides for partial or complete exemption from paying contributions to certain categories of citizens (mainly low-income individuals), but there are also quite a lot of those who evade paying contributions without legal grounds (primarily among young people).

Various steps are being taken to solve the financial problems of the pension system. Thus, in April 2014, the consumer tax rate was increased from 5% to 8%, which is used to subsidize the basic pension (in 2017 it will be raised to 10%). In addition, there is a gradual increase in insurance premiums in kokumin nankin and in two other systems. Various options for raising the retirement age are also being considered.

However, the country's pension system faces more than just financial problems. The cumbersome and complex organizational structure, different insurance conditions for different categories of citizens, a significant gap in the size of pensions, the complexity of the procedure for transferring pension rights from one system to another (for example, in the case of switching to work from the public sector to the private sector or vice versa), etc. - all this not only complicates the operation of the pension system itself, and it causes doubts among the population about its fairness and reliability. The pension system reform, which began in October 2015, is aimed at eliminating many of these problems.

Its main goal is to eliminate the differences between kosei nankin and kesai kumiai in terms of contributions, pensions, and procedural issues. At the same time, the conditions of kesai kumiai pension insurance (more favorable) should be close to the conditions of kosei nankin (more stringent). Public employees ' insurance contributions should be equal to those of kosei nankin signatories by 2018, and those of teachers and employees of private schools and universities by 2027. The Kosei nankin Pension Fund will be merged with the Kesai Kumiai Pension Fund, and pension payments will be funded from a common source. At the same time, the existing structures of kesai kumiai will be used for registration of new members, calculation of pensions, collection of contributions, etc., but already as the executive bodies of kosei nankin. This will preserve the manageability of the system and save considerable money, which would require the transfer of insured persons from one system to another ¹⁵.

Of course, the reform's unification of pension insurance and pension provision conditions for the vast army of employees, the increase in contributions for all signatories, and the optimization of the management system can to some extent ease the severity of financial problems associated with the rapid aging of the population, but, of course, they will not solve them completely. Obviously, this requires more drastic measures - after all, if in 2015 there were 2.3 people of working age per 1 elderly person,then in 2060 only 1.3 able-bodied citizens will be able to support one elderly Japanese person.

Although, as noted above, the vast majority of Japanese retirees rely on pensions as their main source of income-

in addition to current income, many of them have a "safety cushion" in the form of savings. In general, more than 90% of families consisting of elderly people have savings, and their size is very significant - on average, more than 22 million yen per family (about $190 thousand at the current exchange rate). At the same time, only 20% of senior citizens use these funds for current consumption, and about 2/3 save them for cases of illness or the need for care services.¹⁵

MEDICAL SERVICES

Japan is a country with a very efficient health care system, which is clearly confirmed by one of the highest life expectancy rates in the world for its citizens. However, the "silver tsunami" is increasingly complicating the functioning of this system. First, older people are much more likely than their younger counterparts to resort to medical care. Second, the aging of the population is accompanied by a rapid increase in the need for the most expensive types of services, in particular, long-term care services.

The foundation of the Japanese health insurance system was laid with the adoption of the Universal Health and Pension Insurance Act in 1961,which we mentioned above. In its current form, this system includes three links::

- insurance of employees by place of work or profession (in the latter case-through the relevant national associations, for example, the Seafarers ' Association);

- insurance through municipalities in the National Health Insurance System for other categories of citizens - the self-employed, farmers, fishermen and foresters, the unemployed, pensioners (under the age of 75), etc.;

- insurance for the elderly (over 75 years of age), including the long-term care insurance system.

Let's note the distinctive features of the Japanese system of health insurance and medical care. First, the share of insurance payments in covering citizens ' expenses for medical services is the same for all schemes - 30% (with the exception of citizens over 75 years of age who pay 10% of the cost of services, as well as low-income people who have various benefits). Secondly, the same prices for medical services for all hospitals and clinics in the country (they are set by the relevant ministry in accordance with the recommendations of the Social Insurance Council, which consists of representatives of the medical community, insurance companies and ordinary citizens). Third, ensuring that every citizen has access to medical care in any clinic in the country.

The methods of determining and collecting insurance premiums vary from system to system. So, in insurance systems linked to the place of work or type of profession, contributions are deducted from the salary of employees, and their rates vary depending on the level of income (from 3% to 12%). In the National Health Insurance System, they are directly transferred by subscribers to local municipalities, which set their amounts. Contributions consist of two parts: a fixed part, which is the same for all households, and a part calculated taking into account the level of income, assets, and family composition, i.e. different for different households. Pensioner contributions are collected by deducting certain amounts from their pension and are also assigned to municipalities (in 2012-2014). they averaged about 5 thousand yen per month) ¹⁶.

Special mention should be made of the long-term care insurance system for the elderly, which was established after the adoption of the relevant law in 1997. The financial base of this system is formed by insurance premiums and state subsidies. All citizens of the country over the age of 40 are required to pay contributions to this system, which amount to about 1.5% of the amount of their salary and bonuses. The corresponding amounts are collected from pensioners by local authorities in the form of deductions from their pensions. Insurance premiums cover 40% of the cost of services provided by this system, 10% is paid by patients themselves, and the remaining half is covered by the state (central government and local authorities).

Long-term care services are provided at home, in long-term care centers or special clinics for people over the age of 75, suffering from dementia or bedridden, as well as for people aged 65 to 74 with certain types of diseases. In each case, the decision to provide long-term care services is made by the local authorities after a detailed study of the situation.¹⁷

From the point of view of the ratio between insurance premiums and insurance payments, the situation of health insurance systems varies greatly. The most successful systems are those linked to insurance at the place of work or type of profession, which is quite natural, since young and middle-aged people are insured here. The situation is worse with the National Health Insurance System, as it covers the majority of senior citizens (from 65 to 74 years of age

years) and a very significant proportion of low-income individuals who are exempt from paying contributions, but still have access to the health care system. But the most difficult situation is in the health insurance system of citizens over 75 years of age, especially due to the rapid increase in the number of people in need of constant care. According to estimates of Japanese specialists, the average cost of medical care for one insured person in the health insurance system for citizens over 75 years of age is about 5 times higher than the average cost in the National Health Insurance System and 7 times higher than the cost in systems linked to the place of work or profession ¹⁸.

In order to mitigate the problem of imbalance in the health insurance system for people over 75 years of age, as well as in the segment of the National Health Insurance System that serves citizens aged 65 to 74 years, a cross-financing mechanism was introduced, i.e. the transfer of funds from more prosperous systems to less prosperous ones. The share of state subsidies in the payment of medical services to the population is also very significant. In particular, with regard to the costs of medical care for older citizens, firstly, the State pays half of the cost of medical services for persons over 75 years of age and, secondly, it takes over 40% of the amount of payments in the National Health Insurance System19.

Thus, thanks to financial support from the state and the principle of generational solidarity, according to which working generations cover the lion's share of current medical care costs for the elderly, the country's health care system is still working very effectively. However, it is clear that the rapid aging of the population makes maintaining this system more and more burdensome both for working generations and for the State budget.

Unlike the pension system, the health insurance system is not yet planned to carry out any radical reforms. At this stage, the government is trying to reduce the cost of medical care mainly by optimizing the work of this area. In particular, with regard to the most difficult area - long-term care for the elderly, the emphasis is placed on measures designed to prevent the occurrence of diseases that cause the need for such services. A special role in this is assigned to improving the work of integrated centers established in municipalities throughout the country and providing a wide variety of services to older citizens - medical care, care services, assistance in cleaning and home improvement, conducting wellness procedures, organizing lectures by specialists,etc. It is also recognized that it is advisable to expand assistance from local authorities to families, families, families, etc. where there are elderly people in need of care, in order to delay their transfer to a hospital as much as possible (after all, long-term care in a hospital is the most expensive type of service). The issue of facilitating the entry of immigrants from Asian countries who are willing to work in this field for a relatively small fee is also being considered.

WORK AND LEISURE

As noted above, the retirement age in Japan is 65 years. However, one of the features of the labor management system of Japanese companies is the practice of forced dismissal of employees when they reach the so-called maximum age of stay in the company of ²⁰. At the same time, the majority of enterprises (more than 80%) have a 60-year age limit. However, most employees who are dismissed after reaching the age limit are rehired by the company (this is one of the elements of the lifetime employment system) and can continue to work for several more years, but on completely different terms - on one-year contracts and about half of the previous salary. In other words, older Japanese people have employment problems even before retirement age.

The following circumstances give a special meaning to this problem. First, the fact that the Japanese are one of the healthiest and longest-living nations in the world. Thus, the state of health that does not limit a normal full - fledged life persists in women for an average of 73.6 years, and in men-up to 70.4 years. Secondly, the fact that in the system of life values of Japanese people, work takes a priority position, and many of them simply can not imagine their life without active work. According to recent surveys, more than half of the country's senior citizens would like to continue working until the age of 70-75.

According to Japanese statistics, about 3/4 of employees dismissed after reaching the age limit (i.e. 60 years) continue to work on temporary contracts. At the same time, 2/3 of men and more than 1/3 of women work full-time. After reaching retirement age, these indicators are significantly reduced: among Japanese people over 65 years of age, oko continues to work-

among Japanese women, 30% (1/3 of them are in full - time employment), and among Japanese women - a little more than 13% (about 1/5 are in full - time employment). But in general, older Japanese citizens are much more active in this regard than older Europeans or Americans. For example, in 2012, the corresponding indicators were: in the USA - 23.6% and 14.4%, in France-3.1% and 1.7%, in Germany-7.1% and 3.3%, in Italy-6.2% and 1.4%, in the UK-12.5% and 6.5%21.

The problem of employment of senior citizens has become increasingly relevant in recent years, not only because they can make up for the decline in the labor force due to unfavorable demographic changes, but also because large groups of people who are more educated than previous pensioners, who have a large professional experience and high qualifications, are entering retirement age, with a fairly high level of consumption. In other words, the image of Japanese pensioners is changing markedly, and, consequently, their position in Japanese society, including in the labor market, should also change.

The Government is taking certain steps in this direction. For example, in 2007, the Employment Law was revised, and companies were formally prohibited from setting age restrictions when applying for a job. The Law on Stabilization of Employment of Older People, adopted in August 2012, obliges companies that set the maximum age for employees to stay in the company (recall that in most enterprises it is 60 years), to take one of the following measures: either raise it, or cancel it altogether, or introduce employment extension schemes. This was done so that everyone could continue to work at least until the age of 65, i.e. until the retirement age. In addition, the Government pays subsidies to entrepreneurs who employ older workers. Finally, the search for a suitable job for older citizens is greatly facilitated by specialized centers created in different cities of the country, where they are not only provided with information about existing vacancies, but also provide various consulting services.

Of course, over time, even the most active older Japanese people begin to prefer various forms of part-time employment (such as shortened working hours, part-time work, temporary work, etc.), and then completely stop working. What is their leisure time filled with? For Japanese society, this is a very important issue - after all, these citizens have at least another 10 to 15 years of life ahead of them.

First of all, it should be said that in modern Japan, such a social function of older people as participation in the upbringing of grandchildren, which for a long time was taken for granted, has practically disappeared. This is due both to the rapid decline in the proportion of families consisting of three generations (currently less than 5% of the total number of households is made up of such families) and to the growing number of households in the country.?This is due to the growing trend of young couples towards greater independence and independence from their parents, and to a change in the views of senior citizens themselves about what their life should be like after retirement.

Obviously, the lifestyle of older people depends primarily on the state of health, but as noted above, the Japanese are one of the healthiest nations in the world, so most of them remain socially active until old age.

In Japan, much has been done and is being done to create comfortable living conditions for senior citizens and support their social activity. There are thousands of different clubs for the elderly in the country-sports, health, teaching various types of crafts, culinary, dance, etc. Local libraries, museums and universities regularly organize lectures for older people on a wide variety of topics in the centers established by municipalities. Municipalities and local communities regularly organize group trips, which are very popular with older Japanese people, because many of them only after retirement get the opportunity to explore the sights of their native country or go abroad, because before work left them neither the strength nor the time for this.

Special mention should be made of Japan's success in creating a "friendly" infrastructure for older people, allowing them to move around the city, visit shops and restaurants, and travel. Convenient escalators, ramps, self-moving walkways, elevators at metro and railway stations, pedestrian crosswalks with the ability for pedestrians to switch traffic lights themselves, etc. , as well as the readiness of staff in any public institution to help an elderly person - all these remarkable features of modern Japan not only make life easier for its elderly citizens, but also allow them maintain confidence and dignity.

In recent years, the authorities have focused on improving the living conditions of senior citizens. At the same time, we are not talking about providing housing - the absolute majority of Japanese people manage to solve this problem long before retirement - but about improving the level of comfort of their homes. The Housing Construction Program approved by the Cabinet in March 2011 (designed for the period 2011-2020) provides, in particular, for the following measures. First, in accordance with the developed standards, it is planned to reconstruct existing multi-apartment residential complexes in order to create a comfortable living environment for senior citizens (the so-called barrier-free environment); the construction of new houses will also be carried out in accordance with these standards. Secondly, it provides for the construction of special apartment buildings for the elderly, which will not only create comfortable living conditions, but also work on providing various services, including medical care and long-term care services. And, third, lower income and property tax rates have been established for senior citizens living in their own homes, if they bring them in line with the new standards.²²

* * *

In conclusion, I would like to note the following. Although the "silver tsunami" poses a number of difficult problems for Japanese society, the situation of the "culprits" of this phenomenon, i.e. senior citizens of the country, can generally be called quite prosperous. The level of pensions, as well as the savings accumulated during their work, allow them to feel quite free financially, the functioning of a special medical care system and especially a long - term care system makes it easier to solve problems that arise in the event of a deterioration in health. Having ample opportunities to learn new skills, gain new knowledge, travel, etc. makes the life of Japanese pensioners more intense and vibrant. Finally, the creation of infrastructure throughout the country that facilitates the movement of older people, and the respect and attention of younger generations help them feel like full members of society.

Of course, this does not mean that in real life there are no sick, abandoned old people who no one cares about and who even die completely alone. But such cases are still exceptional, and most older Japanese people are quite happy with their lives, which is confirmed by statistics. So, according to one of the latest surveys, among people aged 60 to 80 years, about 70% do not feel any anxiety about their lives, and among people over 80 years-such "optimists" 80% ^2:i.

¹ Japanese Working Life Profile 2013/2014. Tokyo, 2014, p. 18.

² Koureika-no joukyou oyobi kourei shyakai taisaku-no jitti joukyou (The aging Society and politics in relation to the aging society). Vol., 2013, p. 2.

³ Japan Statistical Yearbook 2015, p. 35 -http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/nenkan/1431 - 02.htm

⁴ Japanese Working Life Profile 2013/2014.., p. 3.

⁵ Ibid., p. 15; Ibid., p. 5.

⁶ Japanese Working Life Profile 2013/2014.., p. 15.

⁷ Japan Statistical Yearbook 2015, p. 146 -http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/nenkan/1431 - 02.htm

⁸ Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Comprehensive Survey of Living Condition of the People on Health and Welfare 2010 - www.mhlw.go/jp

⁹ Nihon nenkin kikou (Japan Pension Fund)- www.nenkin.go.jp/n/www/english/index.jsp

¹⁰ Annua] Health, Labour and Welfare Report 2013/2014, p. 235 - 236 - http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/ wp/index.html

¹¹ Ibid., p. 236.

¹² Ibidem.

^{Komamura Kouhei.} 13 Nihon-no nenkin (The pension system of Japan). T., 2014, p. 82-85.

¹⁴ Koureika-no joukyou oyobi kourei shyakai taisaku-no jitti joukyou.., p. 4.

¹⁵ Ibid., p. 13 - 14.

¹⁶ Social Security in Japan 2014, p. 25, 35 -http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/social_security/kaikaku.htm

¹⁷ Ibid., p. 25.

¹⁸ Ibid., p. 24.

¹⁹ Annual Health, Labour and Welfare Report 2013/2014.., p. 27.

²⁰ See Lebedeva Ill. Sudby pozhiznennogo naima: sotsialnye aspekty // Yaponskoe obshchestvo: izmenyaushcheesya i neizmennoe) (in Russian) [The Fate of life-long hiring: Social aspects], Moscow, 2014. (Lebedeva LP. 2014. Sudby pozhiznennogo naima: sotsialnye aspekty // Yaponskoe obshchestvo: izmenyaushcheesya i neizmennoe) (in Russian)

²¹ Koureika-no joukyou oyobi kourei shyakai taisaku-no jitti joukyou.., p. 22; Japanese Working Life Profile 2013/2014.., p. 18, 26.

²² The Second Review and Appraisal of the Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing. Japan's Report, p. 9, 10 - http://who.int/ageing/events/mipaa/en/

²³ Koureika-no joukyou oyobi kourei shyakai taisaku-no jitti joukyou.., p. 11.

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