The modern archaeological landscape of the Khabur steppes (Fig. 1) consists of residential hills - telli. Most of them are confined to the riverbeds, tributaries of the Khabur. The size of the tell ranges from 0.5 to 100 ha, but most of them have an area of 1.5-2 ha and a height of 15-17 m (this observation is mostly true for monuments in the southern part of the Khabur steppes; in the northern part of the district, the number of monuments with large dimensions (3-9 ha) is slightly higher (2), the approximate size of which reaches 10-20 hectares, among them are such monuments as Tell Aswad, Chagar Bazar, Tell Barry, Tell Arbit, Tell Bdeiri (3) and a number of others. The next size category of monuments is made up of an even smaller group of settlements, including tellas, which have an area of approximately 40 to 100 hectares. Among the monuments of this size group should be mentioned Tell Musan, Tell Leilan, Tell Brak, Tell Hamukar, Tell Farfara and a number of others.

The size of most of the tells suggests that they were inhabited in historical times (either they originated in historical times, or the deposits of historical time overlapped the layers of primitive time, as in the settlements of Tell Leilan, Chagar Bazar, Tell Ailun, Tell Khazna II and many others).

At the beginning of the third millennium BC, Northern Mesopotamia and especially the Khabur steppes region experienced an initial stage of urbanization, which in Southern Mesopotamia occurred in the second half of the fourth millennium, when Varkah-Uruk (layer IVa) had, according to Lenzen's estimate, an area of 30 hectares [4]. Accordingly, proto-urban centers of the first half of the second millennium BC were located in the northern Mesopotamia.

1. The article was prepared with the financial support of the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation. Grant N 99.01.00043 a.

2. Meijer D.J.W. An Archaeological Surface Survey: Some Assumptions and Ideas // Tall al-Hamidiya. 2. GOttingen, 1990. Fig. 1.

3. The full name of the monument, for example, Tell Brak, is given at the first mention, but when the monument is mentioned again, the name of the monument is given without the word "Tell".

4. Lenzen H.J. Uruk IVa//Vorlaufiger Bericht ilber die... Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka. XXIV. В., 1968. P. 13-18.

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1. Khabur steppes. Geographical location

As a rule, the size of the third thousand hectares in the Khabur district did not exceed 15-20 hectares (Asvad, Chagar - Bazar, Leylan). According to a number of authors who conducted large-scale excavations and exploratory works, all large centers (up to 100 ha) in Assyria and the Khabur steppes reflect a significant increase in urbanization in the second half of the XX - beginning of the II millennium BC. (5) Most of the largest telles are located in the northern part of the Khabur plains, in the zone most favorable for non-irrigation agriculture (Musan, Leylan, etc.), or on busy trade routes in the southern and eastern parts of the "Khabur triangle" (Brak, Hamukar) (Fig.2).

The process of intensification of urbanism in the second half of the Sh millennium BC took place against the background of aridization, which made life in the lower reaches of the Khabur tributaries impossible, which probably provoked population movement to the north and caused demographic pressure and, in turn, led to the creation of a new highly urbanized model of society organization. At this time, there was a rapid increase in the size of settlements in the northern part of the "Khabur triangle" (Leylan, Muzan, etc.).

This model explains why in the northern part of the Khabur valleys, for example, along Wadi Hanzir, there are monuments, including very large ones with layers of the second half of the III millennium BC, and in the lower reaches of Wadi Hanzir, firstly, there are no large monuments with an area significantly larger than 10 hectares, and secondly, apparently, there are no monuments with layers of the second half of the third millennium BC.

At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the specifics of the region. As already mentioned, a number of settlements, such as Brak, Barry, Hamidiya, Hamukar, stood on the main roads and served transit trade. Such settlements were to a certain extent independent of climatic fluctuations and demonstrate the continuity of cultural development since the IV millennium BC. e. Here a special role belonged to Brak and Hamukar, which probably served as the main gateway to the Khabur steppes from Assyria.

5. Weiss H. The Origins of Tell Leilan and the Conquest of Space in Third Millenium Mesopotamia // The Origin of Cities in Dry- Farming Syria and Mesopotamia in the Third Millenium B.C. Guilford, 1986. P. 83; Wilkinson TJ. The Structure and Dynamics of Dry-Farming States in Upper Mesopotamia // Current Anthropology; 1994. V. 35.5. P. 488.

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2. Current precipitation distribution in Northern Mesopotamia. Tigris and Khabur Tributary Area

In contrast to trade centers, agricultural monuments (at least those that lay outside the main trade routes), such as those of the lower Wadi Hanzir, were much more dependent on climate fluctuations. Therefore, the habitation of the mentioned microregion reflects to a much greater extent the climatic fluctuations that affected the Khabur steppes region as a whole.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION IN THE AREA OF THE "KHABUR TRIANGLE"

Currently, the Khabur steppes are one of the most well-studied archaeological areas of the Middle East, and Mesopotamia in particular. This applies to both excavations and extensive exploration activities (Figure 3).

M. Mallowan's intelligence services

The pioneer of archaeological exploration in the Khabur steppes was the English archaeologist M. Mallowen. During the autumn campaign of 1934, he visited and mapped 62 tell islands (6). Among the observations that he made during the trip, the following can be noted.

1. The absence of primitive settlements on Khabur south of Hasakah, while the author points out that even if there are remnants of primitive settlements in this area, their number cannot be compared with the significant number of settlements of this time located along the modern Syrian-Turkish border (7).

The author for the first time linked the distribution of monuments with climatic conditions, assuming that in ancient times the upper reaches of the Khabur River received more precipitation than in the area of its middle course [8].

6. Mallowan М. The Excavations at Tell Chagar Bazar and Archaeological Survey of the Habur Region 1934-1935//Iraq. 1936. 3. P. 2.

7. Ibid. P. 3.

8. Ibid. P. 3.

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3. Scheme of survey by archaeological explorers of the Khabur and Tigris interfluves. 1 - territory surveyed by the IA RAS expedition's scouts; 2-territory surveyed by I. Hajara's scouts; 3-by B. Lione and M. Mallowen's scouts; 4-by D. Oats ' scouts; 5-by D. Warbarton and J. McCarthy's scouts. Eidem; 6 - D. Meyer's intelligence; 7-X's intelligence. Weiss; 8 - intelligence by J. R. R. Tolkien. Montchembert; 9-intelligence by T. Wilkinson

2. Based on the collection of Khalaf ceramics, M. Mallowen tried to delineate the distribution area of Khalaf monuments in the Khabur region, which covered the territory from Khalaf, Aylun, Hamdun in the north to Brak in the south.

3. Relative absence of Ubaid monuments in the study area (9).

Scouting services, etc. Oatsa

In 1976, D. Oats surveyed a large area of the Khabur steppes from the present-day town of Khaseke in the south to Chagar Bazar, 45 km north-east, and from the bed of the Khabur tributary, Wadi Jag-Jag in the east to another tributary, Khabur wadi Avej in the west [10]. Thus, the central part of the "Khabur triangle" was surveyed in its less fertile (than the lands located to the north) marginal zone of non-irrigation agriculture, in an area where insufficient precipitation currently falls to obtain a guaranteed crop.

The author surveyed about 25 settlements. It was noted that Khalaf ceramics are rare in the region, they were recorded only in four settlements, and the exceptional rarity of Ubaid material was noted [11]. In contrast to the Ubaid materials, the Uruk period is represented by numerous monuments. Uruk ceramics were collected in 22 of the 25 surveyed settlements. Early dynastic ceramics are also numerous and formed a significant part of surface collections [12]. Painted Khabur ceramics of the first half of the second millennium BC were found on 10 of the 25 monuments.

9. Ibid. P. 4.

10. Gates D. The Excavations at Tell Brak. 1976 // Iraq. 1977. 39. P. 234.

11. Ibid. P. 234.

12. Ibid. P. 235.

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The author also notes that medium-sized walled cities such as Beidar, Bati, and Hamidiya are a characteristic feature of the Khabur basin border zone, similar to the settlements on the Jezira border south of Jebel Sinjar in northern Iraq. It seems that many of these settlements were first fortified at the beginning of the second millennium BC, both to protect their inhabitants and to prevent the invasion of nomads (13).

Intelligence in Lyon

Large-scale exploration work in the region in the late 80's and early 90's was carried out by Bertil Lyonnais (14). During these meetings, almost the entire area of the Khabur steppes was covered from Khabur in the west to Jag-Jag in the east and from the Syrian-Turkish border in the north to Hasakah in the south, which included all the microclimatic regions of the Khabur plains. As a result of exploration, a representative collection of 14 tons of material (ceramics and flint) was collected, with an average of 200 kg of material from each monument. The collected collection allowed attributing each of the periods on the studied monuments in all climatic zones [15].

Ceramics of the first half of the third millennium BC were found in 62 settlements, these settlements are distributed evenly over the entire study area, in zones with different levels of precipitation, special collections of ceramics of the Nineveh type 5 with a drawn ornament showed its presence in the eastern part (between the Jag-Jag and Wadi Aveidt riverbeds) and as if its absence in the southwestern part (along the Khabur River and its tributaries Jirjib and Zergan) (16). Pottery from the second half of the third millennium (Akkad and the third Dynasty of Ur) was collected in 32 settlements: Compared to the first half of the third millennium, the number of settlements in the region has halved. Most of the settlements of this time are grouped in the northern part of the Khabur plains. In the southern part, pottery from the second half of the third millennium BC was collected either along permanent water sources (Khabur) or along the channels of tributaries of the Khabur, along which traditional trade routes were located.

For the first half of the second millennium BC, 27 telles and 12 seasonal sites were recorded. Monuments of this time are evenly distributed throughout the studied territory.

Intelligence by J. R. R. Tolkien Montchambert

Surveys conducted in 1983 by J. Montchamber (17) along the middle course of the Khabur river south of Khaseke, in the area of flooding of the future Khabur reservoir, allowed us to examine 60 monuments. The research area is located in a zone of less than 250 mm of precipitation, but all the monuments are confined to the Khabur riverbed, which is now, as in ancient times, the main waterway in the region.

The first settled settlements in the middle reaches of the Khabur were recorded in the Khalaf period. There are three settlements with Khalaf ceramics in the area. This territory was also poorly developed in the Ubayd and Uruk times, respectively, 3 and 5 settlements. A significant increase in settlement activity was noted in the Early Bronze Age, in the third millennium BC. e. Layers of this time were recorded on 22 settlements (unfortunately,

13. Ibid. P. 236.

14. Lyonnet В. La prospection archeologique de la partie occidentale du Haut-Habur (Syrie du Nord-Est): Methodes, Resultats et questions autour de I'occupation aux III et II millenaires av.n.e. // Amurru. P., 1996. 1. P. 363-373.

15. Ibid. P. 363.

16. Ibid. P. 364.

17. Monchambert J.Y. Le Moyen Khabur: prospection preliminaire a la construction d'un barrage // AAAS. 1983. 33/1. P. 233-237.

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based on the proposed division of the material, we cannot differentiate the settlements of the first and second half of the third millennium BC, but perhaps this is not so important, since for settlements located along a constant water source, fluctuations in humidity could not play such an important role as, for example, for the Khazna region).

For the Middle Bronze Age (the first half of the second millennium BC), 17 settlements were recorded, and the territory remains quite well developed. The rapid growth of the region's population in the third millennium BC is noteworthy, and most of these settlements, which were investigated archaeologically, originated at the very beginning of this millennium. The largest settlement in the district is Bdeiri with an area of about 15 hectares (18), with four more settlements in the area reaching an area of about 6 hectares. The remaining settlements are mostly 0.5-1 ha in size. Currently, 15 settlements in this area have been investigated archaeologically.

Intelligence X. Weiss

In 1984, an Yale University expedition conducted preliminary surveys in the Leilan area, along the Wadi Jarrah riverbed and its tributaries. The study area was 707 km2, and the exploration area was defined by a circle with a radius of 15 km, centered in Leilan. In terms of climate , this is one of the most favorable areas for non-irrigation agriculture, currently there is about 450 mm of annual precipitation. In the course of surface collections, material from various historical eras was recorded. Published and summarized information for the time of the third-early second millennium BC (19)

14 tells with layers of early Dynastic time (the first half of the third millennium BC), 15 tells with layers of the late RD Sh - Akkadian - III dynasty of Ur (the second half of the third millennium BC) and 55 tells with layers of Khabur ceramics of the beginning of the second millennium BC are recorded in the region (20).

The author notes that the number of settlements in the first and second half of the third millennium BC was the same, but we should not forget that the population in the area increased significantly, as evidenced by the growth in the size of settlements. Leylan itself grew from 15 to 90 hectares at this time, and probably a number of other large settlements experienced demographic growth at the same time, among them - Muhammad Diab and a number of others.

D. Meyer's intelligence services

During the field seasons of 1976, 1977, and 1979, D. Meyer conducted extensive exploration work in the northeastern part of the Khabur steppes [21], including the area surveyed by the Yale University expedition. The research area is bounded by the Syrian-Turkish border in the north, in the south by the road running from Brak to the northeast through Hasawiyah, Bab al-Malik, Malikiyah to Ain Diwar, one of the most northeastern settlements in Syria, located near the Tigris, on the border with Iraq. In the west, the territory surveyed by the scouts is bounded by the old Tell Brak-Qamishli road, which runs along the Jag-Jag riverbed. Thus, the exploration area is a triangle with an area of 2250 km2 with peaks in Brak, Qamishli and Ain Divar. In terms of climate, this area is one of the most prosperous in Jezir, currently there is about 450 mm of annual precipitation. During the survey, about 300 settlements were mapped. Ceramics from the sixth millennium BC to the Middle Ages were studied.

18. Monchambert J.Y. Prospection archeologique sur 1'emplacement du futur lac du Moyen Khabour // Accadica. 1984. 39. P. 1.

19. Weiss. Op. cit. P. 87.

20. Ibid.

21. Meijer D.J.W. A Survey in Northeast Syria // Orbis Biblius Orientalis. Istanbul - Leiden. 1986. 6. P. 31-45.

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Within the time interval of interest, we differentially considered ceramics that predate Khalaf, Khalaf, Ubaid, Uruk, and Early bronze (nomenclature Early Bronze I, II, III, and IV). Probably, EB I, II corresponds approximately to the time of RD I, II or the time of the spread of Nineveh 5 style ceramics (the first half of the third millennium BC), and EB III, IV corresponds to RD III, Akkadian and III Ur dynasty (the second half of the third millennium BC), as well as Middle bronze (the first half of the third millennium BC). half of the second millennium BC). The Nineveh 5 and Khabur pottery styles are considered separately from the synchronous material.

The author notes that despite the fact that many settlements lie along the wadi channels, a significant part of them are not tied to rivers, which indicates the use of wells in this area from the early stages of antiquity [22].

Despite the fact that the author speaks of Khalaf settlements that are less densely distributed in the north than in the south of the study area [23], in our opinion, this does not follow from the published map [24], where the bulk of Khalaf settlements tend to be more humid in the north. More southern monuments in the area of Brak may well have been seasonal sites, known in other places of the arid zone of the Khabur steppes.

Up to 90 % of settlements with Ubayd ceramics contain layers of the Khalaf culture, while a significant number of Khalaf settlements without layers of the Ubayd period are noted, which indicates, firstly, the continuity of cultural development in the region and, secondly, a decrease in the number of Ubayd settlements compared to the previous time [25].

The author notes the relative peak of the area's population in the Uruk time. Settlements with Uruk ceramics are fairly evenly distributed over almost the entire surveyed area, with a small number of them only in the most northeastern part of the region between the upper reaches of the Jarrah and the Tigris [26].

It is noted that the absolute majority of telles in the district are small villages with an area of less than 2 hectares. Only 13 % have an area of more than 2 ha (only four of them do not contain ceramics from the beginning of the second millennium BC), of which 11 settlements reach an area of 10-20 ha [27]. There are five settlements with an area of 40-100 hectares.

Most of the Uruk and Early Dynastic settlements are grouped in the western part of the study area, along the channels of Wadi Jag-Jag and Wadi Jarrah. It seems that the settlement and development of the territory at the specified time took place from the south through the Brac area.

The peak of the highest population of the area was recorded at the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. The most actively developed lands were again developed between the rivers of Wadi Jag-Jag and Wadi Jarrah. A fairly dense population is recorded further in the direction of the northeast, but in comparison with the specified area, the intensity of population decreases slightly.

Settlement dynamics: Khalaf culture - 32 settlements, Ubaid culture-25 settlements, Uruk time-30 settlements, the first half of the I millennium BC-13-15 settlements, the second half of the III millennium BC-about 55 settlements, the first half of the II millennium BC-180 settlements.

Intelligence by J. R. R. Tolkien Aidem and D. Warbarton

The area partially overlapped by D. Meyer's surveys and mostly located somewhat to the south was surveyed in 1988 by J. Eidem and D. Warbar-

22. Ibid. P. 46.

23. Ibid. P. 47.

24. Ibid. Fig. 31.

25. Ibid. P. 47.

26. Ibid. Fig. 32.

27. Ibid. P. 49.

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The work was carried out as a supplement to the exploration by K. Fielden (29) and covered the area surrounding Brac. The territory surveyed by the scouts is a square with a side of 14 km, with an area of 170 km2. From the west, the area of exploration almost closes with the territory of the expedition of the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Khazna, which was surveyed by preliminary surveys. In the north, the research was limited to the Barry area. The surveyed area is located in an area that currently receives slightly less than 300 mm of annual precipitation.

All ancient settlements in this part of the Khabur steppes are confined to the riverbeds of Wadi ar-Radd and Wadi Jag-Jag. A total of 56 monuments were marked and mapped. The earliest material is Khalaf. Six settlements of this culture were recorded, and the nature of these monuments is not very clear. It is not clear whether these settlements are stationary settlements or seasonal parking lots. Ubaid pottery has been recorded on seven monuments. During the Uruk period, there was a significant increase in the number of settlements. Ceramics of the Uruk period were collected on 25 telles. Layers of the first half of the third millennium BC (the time of Nineveh 5) were marked on 15 monuments. The criteria for selecting the material of this time are not very clear here, and the significant reduction in the number of monuments compared to the Uruk time is surprising. Layers of the second half of the third millennium BC (the end of the early dynastic period - the third dynasty of Ur) are marked on 25 settlements. Khabur ceramics of the first half of the second millennium BC were collected on 19 monuments.

Comparing the exploration area around Brak and Leilan, the authors note a difference in the distribution of the number of settlements of different periods, which indicates the different historical role that these two centers played at different stages of ancient history. If in the Brak region the density of settlements is greatest in the second half of the IV-III millennium BC, then for the Leilan region the peak of population occurs at the end of the III-first half of the II millennium BC, as evidenced by both the growth in the number of settlements in the northern part of the Khabur plains and the growth in the area of Leilan itself. At this time, Leilan is associated with the capital center, the ancient Shubat Enlil - the main residence of Shamshi - Addad, and Tell Brak is identified with Nagar, which was never a royal capital city (30).

Intelligence services of I. Hajjary

Surveys conducted in 1983 by I. Hajara in the upper reaches of Wadi Hanzir/Wadi Dar covered the areas adjacent to Muzan, from the Syrian-Turkish border in the north to Chagar Bazar in the south. The surveyed area was approximately 400 km2. From the east, this area is adjacent to the territory surveyed by Meyer's explorations, from the south-to the territory covered by the research of the expedition of the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Currently, this is an area of stable yields of non-irrigation agriculture, in this band there is approximately 350-450 mm of annual precipitation.

During these explorations, I. Hajjara surveyed and mapped 30 settlements, 25 of which contained layers of the Khalaf time. Ubaid layers are found in 13 settlements, and Uruk layers are found in 10 settlements. Within the third millennium BC, the situation is not very clear; the author uses the nomenclature Mm. 5 (Nineveh 5) and ED (RD) to indicate the time and cultural affiliation in the table representing the distribution of material on the surveyed monuments, it is possible that under Nin. 5 only those settlements where ceramics of this style were recorded are taken into account, and under ED, mass ceramics that are synchronous with it are recorded. It is also possible that Nin. 5 means time, then Nin. 5 should occur in the first half of the third millennium BC (RD I-II), and ED in the middle of the third millennium BC (RD III), then it is not clear why the material of the second one is not taken into account.

28. Eidem J., Warburton D. In the Land ofNagar: A Survey around Tell Brak // Iraq. 1996. 58. P. 51-63.

29. K. Fielden The Chronology of Settlement in Northeast Syria during the Late Fourth and Third Millenium B.C. Diss. Faculty of Oriental Studies. Corpus Christ College. Oxford University, 1981.

30. Eidem, Warburton. Op. cit. P. 55.

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Fig. 4. Settlements surveyed by the research team of the IA RAS expedition

In any case, for the third millennium BC, 11 monuments were taken into account: 7 of them under Nin 5., 5-ED. Khabur-style ceramics of the first half of the second millennium BC are found on 10 monuments [31]. The author notes that the materials of the Uruk period are poorly represented in this area. This applies both to the limited number of settlements compared to the Khalaf time and to the size of settlements (32).

Preliminary explorations of the expedition of the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the lower reaches of Wadi Khanzir

In October 1997 and in 1998, an expedition of the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences conducted a preliminary survey of monuments located along the lower course of Wadi Khanzir from its confluence with Wadi Jag-Jag in the south to the Chagar Bazar latitude in the north [33]. This area, which has been little explored by exploration, comes into contact with the areas surveyed by I. Hajara, J. Eidem, and D. Warbarton in the north and east (Fig. 3).

The survey covered the area between two major archaeological sites - Tell Aswad, located at the confluence of Wadi Hanzir and Jag Jag, and Chagar Bazar. The distance between these monuments is about 33 km. All monuments in the study area are located along the bed of Wadi Hanzir, in this regard, exploration was carried out by walking routes from Khazna along the bed of the wadi.

Currently, the study area receives precipitation from 270 mm per annum in the south and up to 315-320 mm in the north (Figure 2). Now this area is a marginal part of the zone of sustainable non-irrigation agriculture.

In the course of exploration, the following information was recorded: the coordinates of the monument (using JPS), its approximate area, the depth of the nearest wells (the current water table), and surface ceramics were collected for preliminary dating. A total of 17 monuments were mapped (Figure 4). Two sites (small settlements with an area of less than 0.5 ha) of historical time, but with unclear cultural attribution, were not included in the list. These are the settlements of Bir Hilyu (between Nurek and Aslu) and Mahmudiya, 0.5 km north of Abu Kafia.

The ceramic collection was collected on 16 monuments. The collection of data allowed us to get a preliminary idea of the time of their operation (Table).

As can be seen from the table, we can say that the most populated area was in the second half of the IV - first half of the III millennium BC (Uruk-koe and early dynastic times), as well as in the first half of the II millennium BC (Khabur ceramics).

31. Hijara I. The Surface Collection from the Khabur Regional Survey // Unpublished Draft of Article. 5/2. P. 36.

32. Ibid. P. 21.

33. I would like to express my deep gratitude to R. G. Magomedov and S. Yu. Lev, who collected ceramics at the settlements of Khanzir, Heilana, and Farkho during their exploration activities in 1998.

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Table

It is also noteworthy that there are no materials in the collections that can be identified with the second half of the third millennium BC. The surveyed monuments can be grouped into three size groups. The main part (11 monuments) has an area of 1 to 2 ha (usually less than 2 ha), 4 monuments - 2-3 ha and 2-an area exceeding 10 ha. Having obtained preliminary data on the cultural layer of each of the studied monuments, we compared them with the size groups of the telles. It was revealed that the group of settlements with an area of 2-3 hectares includes monuments where, among other (and primarily Uruk and Early Dynastic) Khabur ceramics of the first half of the II millennium BC were necessarily recorded, i.e. these monuments most likely reached their maximum size at this time.

Among the group of monuments with an area of 0.7-2 hectares, there are also materials from the first half of the second millennium BC (Khazna III, Aslu, Gir, Sfeira, Farkho). Almost all the mentioned monuments are single-cultural, the layer of the third millennium BC was marked only on the settlement of Gir. Standard (not proto-urban centers) monuments of the late IV-early-III millennium BC (Uruk and Early Dynastic times), not overlain by layers of the II millennium, in the lower reaches of Wadi Khanzir always have an area of 1 to 2 hectares (usually less than 2 hectares).

Based on the ceramic collections, we can now distinguish synchronous settlements of the second half of the IV - first half of the III millennium BC in the study area (see the table).

Distance between synchronous monuments of the second half of the IV-first half of the III millennium BC.

Between Aswad and Chagar Bazar about 33 km, Aswad and Ayyub about 3.5 km, Ayyub and Abu Kafia about 1 km, Abu Kafia and Hazna P about 3 km, Hazna P and Hazna I about 0.8 km, Hazna I and Nurek about 1.5 km, Nurek and Gargaftar

34. No lifting material was collected at the Girbezhink settlement.

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about 4 km, Gargaftar and Gir about 1 km, Gir and Heylana about 7 km, Heylana and Granishk about 4 km, Granishk and Khanzir about 4 km, Khanzir and Chagar Bazaar about 2 km. It is noteworthy that the synchronous settlements of the study area, the end of the IV-first half of the Sh millennium BC, especially in its southern part, are located in groups of 2-3 tell. The distance between groups is 3.5-4 km. Within the group, the distance between settlements varies from 0.8 to 1.5 km.

As a rule, one settlement in a group is slightly larger than the others. Thus, in the Ayyub - Abu-Kafia pair, Ayyub has a larger size than Abu-Kafia, in the Khazna group, Khazna I (Tell Alawi) is larger than Khazna II, most likely, Khazna I has a larger area than the synchronous settlement in Nurek, completely overlain by strata of a larger settlement of II thousand BC. n. e. It is difficult to speak about the Gir-Gargaftar pair, since the larger Gargaftar, like Nurek, is overlain by later layers of the II th millennium.

The settlement system and the different sizes of settlements indicate the beginning of the settlement hierarchy in the first half of the third millennium BC. On this basis, we can judge the formation of the system of administration and the beginning of the state structure. At the head of the system is the central settlement (proto-urban or nome center, to use the accepted Greek term), which is subordinate to administrative centers (settlements with temple complexes), whose main function, in addition to religious consolidation of the community, was the storage and redistribution of grain, which served as a reserve fund, a kind of "grain bank" of the community. Finally, at the bottom of the settlement hierarchy were ordinary settlements - "villages".

Such a hierarchy repeats the system organization noted for the monuments of the Assyrian steppe of the second half of the IV - first half of the III millennium BC, where, in contrast to the four-stage system postulated for Southern Mesopotamia [35], a three-stage system of administrative subordination is proposed [36].

Explorations in the Khazna area allow us to outline the hierarchy of settlements of the time we are interested in, and excavations undertaken on Khazna I and II allow us to definitely speak, at least for the Early Dynastic period, about the existing system of subordination.

In the lower reaches of Wadi Hanzir, there are only two large settlements of the specified time, which, due to their size, could be nome centers of the first half of the third millennium BC. These are Chagar Bazaar and Aswad, located on the borders of the territory we explored. Accordingly, all the smaller settlements marked between them were located in the orbit and subordination of one of the two centers.

Taking into account the remoteness of the selected groups of settlements from the central settlement, we can try to draw approximate boundaries of the proto-state entities that existed in the study area.

The Ayyub group is about 4 km away and the Hazna group is 9 km north of Aswad. Both monuments (Ayyub and Khazna I), which we interpret as administrative or temple centers, judging by the distance to the larger (central) settlement, should have been subordinate to Aswad. At the same time, it is possible that the settlement of Khazna I was the northernmost administrative center of the "nome" of Aswad.

The issue with the Garhaftar-Gir group remains open. These monuments are located about 6 km north of Khazna I, 13.5-14 km north of Aswad and about 16 km south of Chagar Bazar. According to formal signs of remoteness, they could be in the orbit of each of the two centers. All the more northern monuments of the first half of the third millennium BC, of course, were under the administrative jurisdiction of Chagar-Bazar.

35 Johnson G.A. Spatial Organization of Early Settlement Systems // L'Archeologie de I'lraq du Debut de 1'Epoque Neolithique 333 avant Notre Ere. P., 1980. P. 249.

36. Wilkinson. The Structure... P. 487.

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Thus, we will try to delineate the boundaries of the "nome" of Tell Aswad. As already noted, the northern border of the "nome" of Aswad could reach the area of Gargaftar. In addition to the settlements located downstream of Wadi Hanzir, the Aswada district probably also included a number of settlements located along the course of Wadi Jag-Jaga in the early third millennium BC. In the east, this proto-state formation bordered on monuments located in the orbit of Marriage. The border may have been located about 10 km along the bed of Wadi Jag Jag east of Aswad, and in the west at the confluence of Wadi Jag Jag with Habur, about 10 km from Aswad.

T. Wilkinson's intelligence services in the Tell al-Hawa area

In the al-Hawa region adjacent to the upper Khabur region under study in the Assyrian steppe (Figure 3), an English expedition led by V. Ball carried out extensive complex work in the late 80's and early 90's. During this campaign, 4 settlements were investigated by excavations, in addition, 184 settlements of 18 historical periods from the VI millennium BC (Hassun culture) to the present time were mapped over an area of 475 km2 as a result of continuous exploration [37].

The research area is located in a zone where between 300 mm (in the southern part) and 400 mm (in the northern part) of annual precipitation falls. 39 Tellas of the Hassun period, 42 Khalaf settlements, and 47 settlements of the Ubayd period were recorded in the study area [38]. All monuments of these periods are fairly evenly distributed over the entire area.

Two observations can be made here: first, the population density in these periods is significantly higher than in the Khabur steppes, and second, the climatic conditions (the amount of annual precipitation) in this zone during the VI - first half of the IV millennium BC remained relatively stable and quite favorable (they are comparable to the climatic situation in the northern part of the Khabur steppes), while to the south of this band, climate fluctuations significantly affected the distribution of settlements of this time.

The Uruk monuments in the al-Hawa area are small tells with an area of 0.75-2 hectares. 65 telles of this period were recorded. This is one of the highest population densities in the region. The main settlement of al-Hawa reached an area of 33 hectares at that time.

Layers of the first half of the third millennium BC (RD I-II, or the time of Nineveh 5) are marked on 32 settlements, i.e. the number of settlements in comparison with the previous Uruk time decreased by two times. Settlements of this period were clearly grouped in the northern part of the studied territory, where more than 350 mm of precipitation currently falls. Most likely, this is due to a decrease in precipitation. The data obtained indicate the emergence of a hierarchy of settlements at this time. The area of al-Hawa is 24 hectares. It continued to be the central settlement in the region.

Layers containing Nineveh 5-style pottery have also been found in three small centers (administrative centers), all located between 9 and 12 km from the central settlement.

For the second half of the second millennium BC (Akkad/ third dynasty of Ur), a significant increase in urbanization in the region was noted. Tell al-Hawa reaches an area of 66 hectares, increasing the number of urban centers, which, as a rule, were located on the trade routes leading to the Khabur plains. The number of ordinary settlements decreases, and this time is characterized by one of the lowest population densities of this area, from-

37. Ball W., Tucker D., Wilkinson T.J. The Tell al-Hawa Project: Archaeological Investigations in North Jazira 1986-1987 // Iraq. 1989. 51. P. 1-66; Ball W. Tell al-Hawa and the Development of Urbanization in the Jazira // Al Rafidan. 1990. XI. P. 1-28; Wilkinson T.J. The Development of Settlement in North Jazira between the 7th and 1st Millenia B.C. // Iraq. 1990. 52. P. 49-62.

38. Wilkinson. The Development... P. 55.

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There are only 24 settlements, and all of them are located in the northern part of the territory. In other words, against the background of progressive aridization in the second half of the third millennium BC, on the one hand, there was a decrease in the number of settlements, on the other hand, settlement in large (commercial?)cities was observed. shopping centers. The number of city centers reaches five. In the first half of the second millennium BC, the number of settlements increased to 42. They continue to cluster in the northern part of the study area, but in the southern part of the territory, a group appears that stretches in a line in the direction of south-east - north-west, probably along an alternative trade route (while two chains of settlements are marked to the north, stretching along trade routes going in the same direction).

SYNTHESIS OF MATERIALS COLLECTED IN EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES IN THE KHABURSKY DISTRICT AND ADJACENT TERRITORIES

Khalaf culture (V millennium BC)

The distribution of Khalaf monuments tends to the present-day precipitation band of 300-450 mm per annum. In Assyria, the density of Khalaf monuments is much higher (only in the al-Hawa region 42 settlements [39]), as the Khalaf monuments spread westward in the same climate zone, their number decreases, although in the northern part of the Khabur steppes, Khalaf monuments are found everywhere from the easternmost tributaries of the Khabur (32 settlements in the area between the Wadi Jag rivers- Jaga, Jarrah and further east (40), 27 settlements recorded in the upper reaches of Wadi Hanzir/Wadi Dar (41)) to Ras al-Ain (Tell Khalaf) in the west. The Khalaf monuments within the same precipitation zone are also known further west: in the Baliha Valley there are about 27 monuments (42) and further in the Kweik River Valley there are 28 settlements (43). In the southern part of the Khabur triangle, Khalaf monuments are rare and have a small cultural layer, which indicates their seasonal nature (Khazna II, Kachkashok, Umm Kseyr). The southern boundary of possible non-irrigation agriculture in the Khalaf period is delineated by the Khalaf multi-layered monuments located in the Khabur steppes approximately at the latitude of Chagar-Bazar.

The spread of Khalaf settlements in the Khabur steppes did not occur through the Brak area (the presence of a Khalaf settlement on Brak itself is problematic), but rather along the Tigris Valley through the eastern tributaries of the Khabur (Wadi Rumeylan, Wadi Jarrah, and Jag-Jag in their middle and upper reaches) along the precipitation band bounded from the south by the latitude of Chagar Bazar.

Ubaid culture (first half of IV millennium BC)

In the Assyrian steppe, in the range of 300-400 mm of annual precipitation, the population density remains approximately the same as in the previous Khalaf time, and even slightly increases (47 Ubaid settlements were recorded here). In the easternmost regions of the Khabur steppes, in the same climatic zone, about 25 Ubaid settlements were recorded on a much larger area, and their number slightly decreased compared to the previous Khalaf time. A little further west, also in the area of 350-450 mm of annual precipitation, in the upper reaches of Wadi Hanzir/Wadi Dar, in an area of about 400 km2, comparable to the exploration area at Tell al-Hawa, 13 Ubaid monuments were recorded, which is two times less than in the previous period. In comparison with the Assyrian steppe, we can note a decrease in the number of Ubaid settlements in the direction of the west.

39. Ibid. P. 49-62.

40. Meijer. A Survey... Fig. 31.

41. Hijara. Op. cit. P. 19.

42. Akkermans P.M.M.G. Villages in the Steppe. Amsterdam, 1990. P. 9.

43. Mellaart ,1. The Prehistoric Pottery from the Neolithic to the Beginning of E.B. IV // The River Qoueiq, Northern Syria and its Catchment. Oxf., 1981. (BAR International Series. 98). P. 143-149. 301-308.

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5. Settlements of the Uruk period (second half of the fourth millennium BC). 1-proto-urban centers; 2-administrative centers (temple settlements); 3-ordinary settlements

Like the Khalaf settlements, the Ubaid settlements are distributed in approximately the same band (which may be slightly shifted to the north) defined by the annual precipitation regime. Further west, Ubaid monuments are known in the Baliha Valley (Hammam et Turkman (44)), the Euphrates (Tell Abr (45)), the Kweik Valley (46) and as far as Amuk (47) and Ras Shamra (48).

In the southern part of the Khabur plains, all researchers note the exceptional rarity of Ubaid material. Thus, in the area of the lower reaches of Wadi Khanzir, preliminary explorations of our expedition did not record Ubaid monuments, and to the east in the Brak area, seven settlements were found with Ubaid ceramics [49], which may well, due to the lack of development of signs, be related to the layers of the Early Uruk time. The decrease in the number of Ubayd monuments in the upper reaches of the Khabur tributaries, in some places almost twice, may indicate the beginning of climatic changes in the direction of aridization, and the marked dynamics of the decrease in the number of Ubayd settlements in comparison with Khalaf, towards the west, shows the direction of the spread of Ubayd settlements in the Khabur steppes from east to west. and not from south to north, as it happened in other historical eras.

Monuments of the Uruk period (second half of IV millennium BC)

At that time, the Assyrian steppe of Northern Mesopotamia experienced unprecedented population growth. The number of settlements increases by a third compared to the previous time. The Uruk time shows one of the highest levels of population in the region throughout the history of its development, which primarily indicates the most favorable climatic conditions and significant humidity in the climate compared to the previous period (Fig. 5).

44. Akkermans P.M.M.G. An Updated Chronology for the Northern Ubaid and Late Chalcolithic Periods in Syria: New Evidence from Tell Hammam Et-Turkman // Iraq. 1988. 50. P. 109-145.

45. Hammadeh H., Koike Y. Syrian Archaeological Expedition in the Tishreen Dam Basin. Excavations at Tell al'Abr 1990 and 1991 // Damaszener Mitteilungen. 1992. Bd 6.

46. Mellaart. Op. cit.

47. Braidwood /?../., Braidwood L.S. Excavations in the Plain ofAntioch. 1. Chicago, 1960 (OIP LX1).

48. Cortois J.C. Contribution a 1'etude des niveaux II et III // Ugaritica. 1962. IV. P. 329-414.

49. Eidem, Warhurton. Op. cit. P. 56-57.

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Figure 6. Early Dynastic settlements, Nineveh 5 culture (first half of the third millennium BC). 1-proto-urban centers; 2-administrative centers (temple centers); 3-ordinary settlements

The area of the" Khabur triangle " associated with the Assyrian steppe, according to the law of "communicating vessels", shows the peak of settlement and, accordingly, the demographic peak at the same time. However, the development of this area took place in a fundamentally different way than in previous epochs. Compared to the material of the Ubaid period, the Uruk material is exceptionally abundant in the southern part (and, above all, in the south-eastern part of the Khabur valleys from Wadi Rumeylan to Wadi Avej).

Based on preliminary data, it seems that Uruk monuments are more numerous in the southern part of the "Khabur triangle" (at least not less than in the climatically more favorable northern part of the "Khabur triangle", along the channels of Wadi Jarrah, Wadi Jag-Jaga, Wadi Khanzir and Wadi Avej). At the same time, among the Uruk materials in the southern part of the "Khabur triangle" there are quite early ones (Khazna I, II; Brak).

It is interesting to note the very weak representation of Uruk settlements in the middle Khabur south of Khasek. In our opinion, this distribution of monuments indicates that the only way of penetration of the Uruk way of life into the Khabur steppes was most likely migration from the Assyrian steppe, which occurred through the Brak region, which in the south of the "Khabur triangle" was the only gateway between these areas.

Monuments of the time of the spread of ceramics of the Nineveh style 5 (the first half of 111 thousand BC)

Intelligence reports in Assyria (al-Hawa region) recorded a twofold decrease in the number of settlements compared to the previous Uruk time. They were grouped in the northern part of the study area, which was most favorable in terms of precipitation, while in the southern part there were no settlements of this time, which indicates the beginning of aridization and corresponding changes in the distribution of monuments (Fig. 6).

On the plains of the "Khabur triangle" there is a fairly uniform distribution of monuments of this time (perhaps their absence in the south-western part of the country).

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parts of the area along the course of the Khabur and Zergan proper). Stratigraphic continuity and cultural continuity in the layers of the Uruk and Early Dynastic periods (Khazna 1-11, Kachkashuk, Leylanand a number of others) were noted in a number of settlements. The number of settlements in the first half of the third millennium BC does not decrease in comparison with the Uruk time, they are represented fairly evenly, both in the southern and northern parts of the Khabur plains, which indicates a favorable climatic situation on the entire area of the Khabur tributaries at this time.

It is interesting to note a sharp increase in the number of settlements with strata of the first half of the third millennium BC in the middle Khabur, south of Hasakah, which indicates the activation of economic activity along the Khabur, possibly associated with the emergence of large urban centers on the middle Euphrates, such as Mari and Terka. At this time, the area of the middle course of the Khabur was for the first time quite densely populated.

Monuments of the second half of the third millennium BC (RD111, Akkadian period and 111 Ur dynasty)

In the Assyrian steppe (al-Hawa region), there was a decrease in the number of settlements compared to the previous period, but at the same time an increase in urbanism, the growth of the main cities and administrative centers located on the trade routes leading to the Khabur steppes. All settlements, as in the previous period, tend to the northern part of the surveyed area, which indicates progressive aridization.

At this time, there is evidence of aridization in the southern part of the Khabur steppes. There was a decrease in the total number of settlements in the second half of the third millennium BC in the Khabur district. Based on the preliminary survey data of our expedition, we can say that there are no monuments of this time in the lower reaches of Wadi Hanzir, the population left the inhabited villages and was forced to move to more northern, sufficiently moistened areas (most likely in the upper reaches of Wadi Hanzir).

In the southern part of the Khabur steppes, life at that time was preserved only along the trade routes. Among them, the routes going north along Wadi Jag-Jag and Wadi Avej can be distinguished. At the same time, a number of researchers note the explosion of urbanization that has engulfed the northern part of the Khabur steppes, when large walled cities such as Myuzan and Leylan appear there. The area that Leylan occupied at that time grew from 15 to 90 hectares. The growth of cities shows that the population has not become smaller than in the previous period, but there has been a social regrouping, a new social structure and a new way of life have developed.

Monuments of the first half of the second millennium BC Khabur ceramics

At this time, the Khabur steppes are characterized by an extraordinary surge of settlement activity, and the area has the highest level of population throughout history. Settlements with painted Khabur ceramics are found in all ecological zones of the "Khabur triangle" both in its northern and southern parts, which obviously indicates an exceptionally favorable climatic background. On the other hand, the highest density of settlements with Khabur ceramics is observed in the eastern part of the Khabur steppes between the rivers Wadi Jag - Jag, Wadi Jarrah and Wadi Rumeylan. About 190 monuments of this time have been discovered in this area. This concentration of settlements can be explained by the fact that the area was the center of the consolidating Hurrian state entity of Subaru with its capital in Shubat Enlil, which is usually associated with Leilan. Somewhat to the west, the number of settlements with Khabur ceramics decreases, for example, about 20 settlements of this time were recorded in the Wadi Khanzir area.

In the Assyrian steppe (in the al-Hawa region), there was also a twofold increase in the number of settlements with Khabur ceramics (42 of them were recorded) compared to the second half of the third millennium BC, which indicates an increase in moisture content, but at the same time

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the population density here is somewhat lower than in the nuclear zone of the Hurrian state (in the interfluve of Wadi Jag-Jag and Wadi Jarrah). At this time, in contrast to the entire previous and subsequent history, when the Assyrian steppe was the cultural metropolis of the eastern part of Jezira, the Khabur steppes became the center of cultural impulses that had a significant impact on vast territories.

THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MONUMENTS IN THE KHABUR STEPPES OF NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA

(Vth-IInd mill. SUN) Sh. N. Amirov

The article describes the topography of archaeological monuments of Vth-IInd mill. ВС in the Khabur steppes and the adjacent areas of Northern Mesopotamia. The work synthesizes the data of several explorers' investigations including the materials of the Russian Archaeological Expedition in Syria. The prospecting was conducted in the lower reaches of the river Vadi Khanzir, for since main object of archaeological study of the expedition, the settlement of Khazna I, is situated near its river-bed. The study of the situation of synchronous settlements from different periods makes it possible to reconstruct the picture of climate fluctuations in Northern Mesopotamia of the period in question.

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