The article presents a morphological analysis of remote tools found at sites of the final stage of the Upper Paleolithic-Neolithic of the Korean Peninsula. The article deals with the classification of handpieces, methods of processing them, and the possibility of using them in the military and industrial spheres.

Key words: projectile points, violence, period of transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Neolithic.

Introduction

In the framework of this study, we examined the tips of throwing tools - stone artefacts of a pointed shape, related to the Upper Paleolithic and the period of transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic. These tips were used for stabbing blows or as throwing tools. According to ethnographic reconstructions [Keeley, 1996] and experimental data [Ahler, Geib, 2000; Oik. 2004], they could be used as javelins, as well as spearheads and arrows.

On the Korean Peninsula, such arrowheads of the Upper Paleolithic era are called petiole arrowheads, and those of the transition period from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic period are called spear or arrow arrowheads (Figure 1). They are further subdivided according to the degree of standardization, perfection, and nature of technology.

As a result of numerous systematic excavations conducted in recent years, the number of archaeological sites in Korea where projectile points were found has increased (Figure 2). A significant amount of information has been obtained that allows us to get an idea of the types of projectile points, their varieties, and patterns of distribution in space and time. In the course of some studies, it was supposed to reconstruct the behavior of people from artifacts, as well as establish certain features of the appropriating economy and migrations. Studying the tips of throwing weapons will probably help answer questions about violence. Stone arrowheads, while being an effective tool for obtaining food, have also been used as weapons in conflicts between individuals and between groups of people.

Having only the materials of archaeological sites on the territory of Korea, it is difficult to find direct evidence of violence in the behavior of people of the Paleolithic era. Findings from other regions indicate that violence has its roots in the Middle Paleolithic. The frequency of occurrence of archaeological materials indicating violence between people increases sharply starting from the Upper Paleolithic and increases even more during the Neolithic period (Vend, 2004).

The widespread occurrence of violence as a phenomenon correlates with an increase in the number of broken and intact stone arrowheads lying among bones or near human remains. Projectile points are an ideal material for reconstructing the development of the phenomenon of violence in the Paleolithic period-the period of transition to the Neolithic. About-

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Figure 1. Upper Paleolithic (1-11) and Upper Paleolithic to Neolithic (12-14) projectile points from Korean sites.

1 - 4-Suyoungae [Lee Yunjo, Woo Jongyun, 1997]; 5, 6-Yongsandon [Kim Hwanil, 2004]; 7-Samri [Han Changkyun, Hong Miyoung, Kim Geethae, 2003]; 8, 9-Koreri [Seo Yeongnam, 1998]; 10, 11-Yeonkhodon [Han Changkyun, 2002]; 12-14-Kosanri [Lee Chongyu et al., 1998].

Figure 2. Location of monuments where the projectile points described in this article were found.

The spread of violence at this time is directly related to climate change. Adaptation to new natural and climatic conditions probably influenced social behavior, economic strategies, and numerical characteristics of groups of people. The probability of changes in the conflict structure increased. We are talking about the fact that the emergence of a settled society 14 thousand years AGO was probably a key moment in the development of intergroup violence (Keeley, 1996).

Changes in the demographic situation and the complexity of social relations led to increased rivalry between groups of people (Read and Leblanc, 2003), which in turn led to an intensification of violence. Social behavior is an important factor in the phenomenon of violence. Since the formation of social contacts preceded violence, it is these contacts that can be considered the most important cause of violence. Thus, the expansion of social contacts caused both positive phenomena (food sharing and resource harvesting) and negative ones (conflicts and violence).

Hypothesis on the relationship between hunting and violence

The underlying hypothesis is that increased contact as a result of a more complex social structure and a developing appropriating economy contributed to an increase in violence, and the intensity of violence increased as the size of groups increased. Violence during the transition period was more intense than in the previous one. This conclusion is based on the results of an analysis of archaeological data, in particular, the quantitative indicators of the tips of throwing tools.

Evidence of violence in the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras is provided by injuries to human skeletons. The bone material shows injuries caused by sharp points, clubs and axes. Projectile points have traditionally been considered primarily as hunting implements, but there is evidence that they were also used in spacecraft.-

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honor of military weapons. Traces of damage caused by stone arrowheads are marked on human remains found on monuments that belong to the period not earlier than the Middle Paleolithic. There is evidence that violence has increased since that period. The tips of projectile weapons such as spearheads are often found stuck in bone (especially on Upper Paleolithic sites). In Italy, Sudan, Ukraine, and India, bone remains have been found with signs of intentional damage, such as stone tool damage (Bachechi, Fabbri, and Mallegni, 1997). During the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, the phenomenon of violence evolved from clashes between individuals to inter-group skirmishes. Traces of mass inter-group skirmishes have been recorded on a number of graves (Vend, 2004).

Thus, violence in the prehistoric period manifested itself in various forms. According to archaeological data, widespread violence is characteristic of the period that replaced the Paleolithic, when the tips of throwing tools began to serve not only as tools for economic activities, but also as military weapons. To check whether stone arrowheads were used in collisions, you need to analyze them from the point of view of the following hypotheses.

First , the ratio of the number of projectile points to the total number of artefacts may reflect their predominant use in skirmishes or hunting. For example, the high concentration of arrowheads along the fence of the Neolithic site in England (Keeley, 1996) indicates that stone arrowheads were available in large numbers and served as weapons of battle. If the stone arrowheads were used during a collision, it was impossible to re-use them, but if they were used for hunting, they could be used repeatedly. The large number of spikelets in the area of the monument can be considered as evidence of the predominance of these items as weapons for combat purposes, and not for hunting.

Second , the presence of a side protrusion in the form of a spike indicates the true use of the tool. If the spike stands out significantly, then the stone tip was most likely used for violent actions (Figure 3). The tips of throwing weapons used in combat skirmishes were designed to be difficult to remove and cause maximum damage to the enemy. Tips for hunting implements could be easily removed and reused [Ibid.]. Some remote weapon tips were intended not only for combat weapons. However, the design style of different types of tips, regardless of their further use, was the same. Therefore, it cannot be argued that all stone tips without spikes were not intended for military weapons.

3, 4). Stone tips, unlike those made of other materials, are not particularly strong (Pokines, 1998). Based on the cleavage strategy [Flenniken, 1985], it can be assumed that the elongated tip was originally manufactured with re-use in mind. Slightly damaged tips may have been corrected when a new working edge was added. Such tools could be used for multi-day hunting (Ahler and Geib, 2000). By-

3. A tip without spines (a) and with spines (b) (the terms are given in [Justice and Kudlaty, 1999]).

Fig. 4. The tool adjustment sequence.

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since the end and lower part of the tip were most often damaged by impact (Bergman and Newcomer, 1983; Flenniken and Raymond, 1986), it is advisable to compare the tips along the length, it can help in determining the scope of their use. Since the damage affected the length of the gun more often than the width, the renewed tips had to be reduced in length, but not in width.

General features of the considered monuments

The study was based on materials from Korean monuments. The formulated hypotheses were tested using "cable" rather than "chain" methods. The latter is based on the study of single features, the "cable" method is inherently multi-row. The disadvantage of the" chain " method is that the argument is not accepted if one of the logical steps remains unproven [Lewis-Williams, 2002]. When using the" cable " method, unacceptable explanations are not a problem, since the argument will be supported by other explanations. Thus, using the "cable" method, it is possible to link three hypotheses into one logical series and conduct further research even if there is a lack of any evidence. In some cases, guns can be used for both combat operations and for food production (Lambert, 2002). When interpreting evidence, the "cable" method should be used.

The hypotheses were tested on the materials of the Suyange, Chingneul, Yongkhodon, Yongsandon, Kokcheon, Chuksan, Chim Kok ri, Wolpyeong, Koreri, Samri, Chan Geungni and Kosanri monuments. All monuments (except the last one) Kosanri belongs to the transition period from the Upper Paleolithic to the Neolithic. Archaeological excavations were carried out at all sites. In order to avoid misinterpretation of the chronology, we did not consider those monuments where the projectile points were collected from the modern day surface.

Before the excavation of the Suyange monument in Paleolithic Korea, the tips of throwing tools were not known. Excavations were carried out from 1983 to 1996 (Lee Yongjo and Woo Jongyun, 2006). In cultural layer IV, stone arrowheads were found, for which a date of 14 C was obtained. 18 630 - 16 400 Li Sungbok, 1996; Kon Sujin, 2006. Later, it was refined using AMS dating: 15 410 - 15 350 Ph. D. (Lee Yunjo and Kim Jongchang, 2006).

Chingynyl has been excavated since 2000. Two cultural layers have been discovered: the lower one, which shows signs of the Middle and Lower Paleolithic, and the upper one with artifacts typical of the Upper Paleolithic. The collection of finds includes approximately 12 thousand items. It shows the tips of throwing tools and plates. Most of them formed clusters; some artifacts were restored by repair. This indicates that the monument was not affected by modern man-made destruction processes. No absolute age data are available for the lower layer; the age of the upper layer, determined from charcoal samples using AMS dating, is 22,850 ± 350 BP (Li Gigil, 2004a).

The Yongkhodon monument was excavated in 1999-2001. It includes three cultural layers (the uppermost layer 1), which belong to the Upper Pleistocene deposits. Projectile points were found in layers 2 and 3. Layer 2 shows toothed tools and scrapers. Using AMS dating, a date of 38,500 ± 1,000 BP was determined for the layer (Goldstein, 2000). Layer 3, for which there are no absolute dates, is obviously older than layer 2. The stone arrowheads from Layer 3 are probably the oldest in Korea (Choi Samyeon, 2004).

The Yongsandong monument was excavated in 2004-2005. Among the 22 thous. among the artifacts found on it, along with the products of fission, 67 tools were noted. Of the eight recorded lithological layers, only one included the cultural layer (layer 3). Radiocarbon dating was used to determine the date of 24,430 ± 870 BP in the soil (Kimvit, 2004). However, research has established a tendency to re-process artifacts. Sediments in layer 3 reflect colluvial phenomena; layer 4, located below layer 3, is of fluvial origin. Given the concentration of artifacts in the lower part of layer 3, it can be assumed that the items were moved to this place by water. In this case, their location is a secondary context. There are doubts as to whether the displacement force was sufficient to form such a secondary context.

The Kokcheon Monument, located in the Honam district of the southwestern Korean Peninsula, was excavated between 1986 and 1987. These were the first Paleolithic excavations in the region, during which eight cultural layers were recorded; there is no data on the absolute age of these layers. The finds include a projectile head, scrapers, and microplate nuclei that indicate an Upper Paleolithic age (Lee Yongjo, Wu Jongyun, and Ha Munsik, 1990).

The Chuksan Monument, located near the Kokcheon Monument, was investigated in 1988-1989. Both sites were excavated around the same time, during the construction of the dam. Not for the Chuksan monument

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absolute age data. Among the 200 artefacts, there are only three high-quality retouched tools (a scraper, a chopper, and a stone tip) and relatively few plates. The stone arrowheads found on the site can be typologically attributed to the Upper Paleolithic period [Ibid.].

The Chhimkokri monument contains more than 800 artifacts, including the tips of throwing tools, plates, nuclei for removing plates, as well as various tools on flakes. AMS dating was performed on soil samples, but no results were obtained. According to geological studies, the artefacts were deposited between 10-20 thousand years ago. After studying the spatial patterns of the use of raw materials, the geological context and conducting experimental work, the materials of the monument were considered as a single cultural complex. It is established that the location of some artifacts has changed, but only slightly; most of the artifacts can be considered to have occurred in situ.

Most of the monuments that are considered in this article were investigated using the methods of rescue archeology. The Wolphen site, which has the status of a monument of national significance, was studied differently: the amount of funding allowed for planned excavations, which were conducted here during three field seasons-in 1998, 2001 and 2006. The results of the fieldwork of the first two seasons have already been published; the results of the third stage are expected to be published soon. During excavations in 1998, artefacts were found in the in situ position, some of them representing parts of the same product. The report notes three projectile points and typical Upper Paleolithic artefacts (Li Gigil, 2002). During further field studies, similar archaeological sites were obtained under stratigraphic conditions. Stone arrowheads were found in layers 3 and 4, which are more than 18 thousand years old. The age was determined from soil samples from permafrost textures reflecting the last glacial maximum in Korea (Lee Gygil, 20046; Lee Hyeong-woo, 2006).

The Koreri monument is characterized by the presence of two cultural layers. The types of artifacts found in the upper layer correspond to the Upper Paleolithic culture. Projectile points were found in the lower cultural layer. The dating was based on volcanic ash. Aira-Tn (AT) tephra was studied from the artefact concentration site (So Yeongnam, 1998). It is dated AT 24-21 thousand years AGO (Lee Sungbok, 1996).

The Samri monument was excavated in 2000. Field research and exploratory excavations were conducted in the Samri area in 1999 and 2000. Five locations were studied and 3,900 artifacts were collected (including debitages). Artifacts are found in layers 1 and 2. Layer 2 of the fifth locality contains a stone tip, choppings, polyhedra, and plates. Attempts to determine absolute dates were unsuccessful. Based on the data on soil fragments, a relative date was established for layer 2 - less than 15 thousand years ago.

The Changhynni monument is characterized by the presence of two cultural deposits. An important collection is obtained mainly from the upper sediment pack (layer 1). One projectile tip was found along with the tools on the flakes. The monument's collection includes typologically diverse tools: scrapers, knives, plates, incisors, sharp points, choppers and chippers. According to the researchers, they are found in their original context. The tools show no signs of weathering. Some artifacts were so "fresh" that they could be examined with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) for wear and tear. The dates for layer 1 are not objectionable, since the dates for this layer obtained by the AMS method and using tephra analysis were cross - checked. The age of layer 1-approximately 24 thousand years-is accepted by most experts.

Characteristics of projectile points

According to the reports of excavations in Kosanri (Kang Changhwa and Oyuk, 2003; Lee Cheongyu et al., 1998), arrowheads in the collection accounted for more than 46% of the total number of stone artifacts, not including debitage. However, the proportion of such products in different parking areas varies greatly. The artifact set contains many microplates, which were often used as insert tools. Thus, not all microplates correspond to a specific weapon; there should be more projectile points than guns. Tools belonging to the "miscellaneous" group included plates, microplates, and retouched tools. The latter were of poor quality and were characterized by a lack of stable forms. Thus, we can assume that these artifacts were products in the initial stage of design.

A large number of projectile points were found in Kosanri. At the Upper Paleolithic sites, only a small number of throwing tools were obtained. The only exceptions are Suyange and Chingynyl localities. The largest amount of material was obtained at the Chingynyl monument, including almost 90 projectile points.

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Percentage indicators are more convincing than quantitative ones. Unlike the Upper Paleolithic sites, Kosanri is characterized by a high proportion of stone arrowheads (70.01%). Among the Upper Paleolithic sites, Yongsandon is the leader in terms of the specific weight of these products (58.33%). In the industries of other monuments, this figure does not exceed 20%.

Exact dating data are not available, but it can be assumed that Kosanri was settled later than 12 thousand years ago (Kang Changhwa, 2002). This monument is represented by one cultural layer. Although two possible cultural layers - chernozem (layer II) and yellow-gray clay (layer III) - were identified and studied, it was found that the tools in layer II came from layer III (Ko Jaewon, 1996). Not all monuments have good stratigraphy. The sites of Suyangye, Chhimkokri, Yongsandon and Samri can be considered as undisturbed sites containing the tips of a single cultural complex.

Suyange is a multi-layered monument. Most of the Upper Paleolithic artifacts were obtained from the loam layer (layer IV). According to recent studies, artefacts of the peaked type, including stone artefacts, accounted for 14.1% of all tools, excluding flakes and debiting (Lee Yunjo, Kong Sujin, Cheon Gwon-hee, 2004). Consequently, the proportion of stone arrowheads alone should be even lower. The Chhimkokri monument is characterized by only two cultural layers, and one of them is redeposited. The results of geological studies have confirmed that the primary layer is Layer II, which represents a holistic cultural context (Li Hyunwoo, 2004). Among the 43 tools, two stone arrowheads were found, or 4.65% of the finds from this layer. Numerous artifacts were found in the first layer, but all of them came from layer P. Their share does not exceed 2.15%, therefore, the tips of throwing guns were made in extremely small quantities. In Samri, the percentage of products in this group was lower. The total number of artifacts found at the site, including flakes and debitage, was 3,900. In cultural layer I, which belongs to the period not earlier than 15 thousand years. There were 1,870 artefacts, of which only 82 were guns. Only one stone tip was found, the share of which is 1.22%. In the collection of the Yongsandong Monument, stone arrowheads accounted for 50% of the tools. All the guns (24 units) probably came from the same undisturbed layer. The report on the full-scale excavation has not yet been published, so the data describing the length-to-width ratio cannot be considered completely reliable. Judging by the low percentage indicators, stone arrowheads from almost all Upper Paleolithic sites had a different purpose than the finds from Kosanri.

Stone arrowheads found at the Kosanri site on Jeju Island confirmed the importance of the monument in shaping the idea of the transition period from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic. Two reports on the site's excavations have been published (Lee Chung-do et al., 1998; Kang Changhwa and O Yank, 2003), as well as several critical reviews (Justice and Kudlaty, 1999; Kang Changhwa, 2002; Ko Jaewon, 1996; Lee Cheong-do, 1995; O Yank, 2004).

We studied the tips of throwing tools from the Kosanri site and from Upper Paleolithic sites. By the end of the 1990s, such tools were found at many sites, including Sogjanni, Koreri, Chuksan, Kokcheon, and Wolpyeong (Lee Gigil, 1999). By now, the range of such monuments has expanded to include Changheungni [Choi Boggyu, Choi Samyeon, Choi Seungyeop, 2001], Yongkhodon [Han Changkyun, Hong Miyeon, Kim Githae, 2003], Ching Geul [Lee Gigil, 2004a], Chim Chokri [Lee Hyunwoo, 2004], and Yongsandon [Kim Hwanil, 2004a]. 2004]. A relatively large number of stone arrowheads have been found on Suyang.

Morphological characteristics, in particular, the value of the angle of spines, were used to analyze the functions of spines. Since stone arrowheads are usually symmetrical, the spike was measured only on one side. The measurement method is quite simple: two lines are drawn - one from the distal end of the spike to the end of the tip, and the other from the distal end of the spike to the notch or shoulder, and the angle is measured between them. Products with a side projection angle of more than 110° were classified as category X; those with an angle of 90° or less were classified as category O. Category M includes attachments with angles between 90 and 110°. Such spikes were qualified as having an intermediate functional value.

More than 1,000 stone arrowheads have been found in the Kosanri Monument, but their full-scale analysis has not yet been completed. We have studied a small number of artifacts. The abundance of rootless types on the Kosanri monument is noted. For the purpose of comparison, mainly petiolate stone tips were studied.

The stone arrowheads found at the Suyange monument were either without a spike or the spike had no functional significance (Figure 5). None of the 22 arrowheads had pronounced spikes; most of the spikes (91%) were classified as Category X. Finds from the Chingheung-il, Yongkhodon, Yongsandon, Kokcheon, Chuksan, Chim-gokri, Wolpyeong, Koreri, Samri, and Changheunni monuments usually have non-functional spikes of Category X; the exception is an artifact from the Yongkhodon monument.

Most stone tips with Kosanri are characterized by the presence of clearly defined, protruding spikes. Of the 59 petiolate tips, 32 (54%) have spines that can be safely identified.

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Figure 5. Tips with different shaped spikes on Suyang and Kosanri.

See the technical description in the text.

6. Root-mean-square deviation values for stone arrowheads from Suyange and Kosanri monuments.

classified as category O, 17 items (29%) as category M. This means that 83% of the tips from the Kosanri monument demonstrate the stability of their shapes.

It is very rare to find arrowheads in Upper Paleolithic deposits, while it is quite possible to find spearheads or javelins. Thus, there is insufficient evidence to understand how violence-related behavior evolved during the Upper Paleolithic period. Today, no signs of violence can be identified solely on the basis of the projectile points found on Upper Paleolithic sites.

Stone arrowheads from the Kosanri monument had numerous morphological features of the design of spikes. After preliminary analysis, many projectile weapons were classified as arrowheads (Cho Hyunjong, 2001). Thus, the tips of throwing weapons of the transition period from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic could be used during an armed confrontation.

Various regularities in the reuse of stone arrowheads of the Upper Paleolithic and transition periods can be established by studying the ratio between length and width, since the product's length changed significantly more than its width during repeated use. Most of the data was obtained by us in the course of self-study of artifacts, some information is drawn from archaeological reports. In some cases, the average values could not be taken into account, since only one stone tip was found.

Petiole tips in the amount of 59 units from Kosanri are characterized by the following average indicators: length 2.93 cm, width 1.83 cm, length - to-width ratio 1.6. Measurement data of Upper Paleolithic finds were obtained from various sources [Choi Boggyu, Choi Samyeon, Choi Seungyep, 2001; Deacon, 1999; Han Changkyun, Hong Miyeon, Kim Githae, 2003; Kang Changhwa, 2003; Lee Gigil, 1999; Lee Yunjo and Kongsujin, 2002; So Yeongnam, 1998]. Samples from Suyang have the following average values: length 6.0 cm, width 2.4 cm, ratio 2.5.

The value of the length-to-width ratio of more than 2.0 corresponds to all monuments, except for Yongkhodon - 1.85 and Kosanri-above the value of 1.6.Thus, in the Upper Paleolithic era, stone arrowheads with a higher length-to-width ratio predominated, from which it can be preliminarily concluded that they were made for the purpose of reuse. To better understand the importance of this metric, it may be useful to apply the standard deviation method.

Flenniken and Raymond conducted a series of experimental studies on the production, use, and adjustment of spikelets (Flenniken Raymond, 1986). Their metric data correspond to the findings before the experimental procedure and after the experimental operation and adjustment. These data can be analyzed using the standard deviation method. It was found that the length changed more strongly after the experimental adjustment, so the value of the root-mean-square deviation for the length was higher than the same indicator for the width.

Of the Paleolithic sites, Suyange is the richest in material, so the stone arrowheads from Suyange and Kosanri were compared (Figure 6). A significant difference in the standard deviation values for the length of the stone arrowheads of both monuments was noted. For 22 tips from the Suyang Monument, the values are average-

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Square deviations were 1.29 (length) and 0.53 (width), for 59 petiolate tips from the Kosanri monument - 0.53 and 0.34, respectively, for 26 petiolate tips - 0.63 and 0.41, respectively. The lower values of the root-mean-square deviation for Kosanri tips are explained by small differences between the length and width, which indicates that there is no adjustment after the manufacture of tools. Judging by the data for Suyange, the arrowheads from this monument probably underwent repeated touch-up. As explained above, serious impact damage is mainly concentrated at the proximal and distal ends of the tool; as a result, the length of the tool changes more during processing or adjustment than its width. Significant differences in the values of the root-mean-square deviation for both groups of handpieces were probably due to differences in the strategy for reusing tools.

Differences between the Kosanri and Suyange arrowheads in terms of length-to-width ratio and standard deviation values indicate that tools were reused in the Upper Paleolithic, but not in later periods. At a later time, the guns were probably used in skirmishes.

Conclusion

According to archaeological materials, violence between individuals can vary depending on the degree of cultural development. In this paper, this statement was studied using the tips of throwing tools of various periods from monuments from the territory of South Korea, while taking into account the data of ethnography and the results of experiments.

Several variants of stone arrowheads of different time periods from various monuments were analyzed. At the same time, variations in the morphological design of remote weapons were noted. This study outlined possible explanations for these variations based on qualitative and quantitative signs of violence.

The parameters of arrowheads from the Kosanri monument, which dates back to the period of transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Neolithic, were more associated with quantitative and qualitative changes in violence than arrowheads from earlier sites. The presence of spikes, signs of adjustment and patterns of distribution of types of artifacts on the Kosanri monument indicate a purposeful preparation of the monument's inhabitants for armed clashes.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 12.11.09.

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