V. A. Deryugin, Sakhalin Laboratory of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography SB RAS Sakhalin State University
70 Pogranichnaya St., Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, 693008, Russia
E-mail: deryugin@yahoo.com
UDC 903 ' 1
Introduction
The concepts of "Okhotsk-type ceramics" and "Okhotsk culture" were first used by Japanese archaeologists in the early 20th century. to refer to something that goes beyond the general archaeological periodization of the history of the Japanese archipelago, something that in the north of Hokkaido was very different from the Jomon or Satsumon cultures. Due to the new data accumulated to date, there is a need to revise the concept of "Okhotsk culture" (Vasilevsky, 2006). We will try to give our own vision of the situation based on our own analysis of materials from the second half of the first - beginning of the second millennium AD from Sakhalin, Hokkaido, the Amur region, and the Northwestern Okhotsk region.
Modern reading of the Okhotsk culture
The study of the Okhotsk culture is mainly carried out by Russian and Japanese researchers. For the first time, "ceramics without rope ornaments" were discovered in 1890 by Shirota Kamejiro on Rebun Island near the northern tip of Hokkaido (Nakamura Itsuki, 1979, p.58). In 1913, Yenemura Kiyoshi named the clay products found at the Moero monument near Abashiri as moero type ceramics (Kikuchi Tetsuo, 1972, p. 5) . In 1932, Sugiyama Sueo gave the generic name "Hokkai ceramics" for ceramics from the Kuril Islands, as well as Hokkaido and Sakhalin (1932, p. 432-437).]. In 1933, Kono Hiromichi introduced the definition of "Okhotsk-type ceramics" for the ceramics of this region, which was fixed for many years. Based on the findings from Moero, he identified four groups of ceramics (Kono Hiromichi, 1933, pp. 19-20). Ceramics of group A had impressions of comb-shaped and shaped stamps, group B-carved ornament and notches, group C-wave-shaped rivet roller, group D-noodle-shaped rivet strips. Vessels of the first three groups were found in the lower, and the fourth - in the upper layers. After Kono Hiromichi, attempts were made to give other names to Okhotsk ceramics. Thus, Sugihara Sesuke proposed the name "ceramics of the Okhotsk coast" (Nakamura Itsuki, 1979, p. 59), and Baba Osamu, who studied the Okhotsk monuments in the northern part of the Kuril Islands, used the term "hoppo ceramics" (northern ceramics) (Kikuchi Toshihiko, 1995, p.34).
All available periodizations of these ceramics are based on the Ito Nobuo periodization, created in the 1930s for finds from Southern Sakhalin. He identified the following types of ceramics, which in his opinion were successively replaced, and which were later linked to the "Okhotsk culture": susuya, tovada, enoura-B, enoura-A, minami-kaizuka, and higashi-taraika; their names are derived from Japanese place names on Sakhalin [1942, pp. 19-44]. Currently, there is no consensus among Japanese archaeologists about the periodization of the Okhotsk culture (Usiro Hiroshi, 1991, 1995; Fujimoto Tsuyoshi, 1966; Maeda Ushio, 1987). Some refer to it all types of ceramics and count from the Susu type, while others believe that the beginning of the Okhotsk culture corresponds to ceramics of the Tovada type.
In the Soviet period in Russia, the Okhotsk culture, which had Proto-Nivkh roots, was defined as the beginning of the World War II.-
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the first millennium BC - the middle of the second millennium AD (Vasilevsky and Golubev, 1976). Currently, Russian archaeology is dominated by the view that the Okhotsk culture is an ethno-cultural combination of successively chronologically (V century BC - XIII century AD) and geographically adjacent cultures-Susui, Onkoromannai, Tovada and the Okhotsk culture proper. In the latter, in 1999, A. A. Vasilevsky singled out more Sakhalin and Hokkaido variants and Tobinitai [p. 129-133]. However, in the future, the researcher, taking into account the similarity in pottery of the Okhotsk and Mohe cultures, objects of mainland origin on Sakhalin and Hokkaido, made a statement about the Okhotsk culture as an island version of the Mohe culture [2005b].
Types of ceramics of the Okhotsk culture
We will briefly describe the types of ceramics that were identified and attributed to the Okhotsk culture by Ito Nobuo, as well as by archaeologists of subsequent generations (see the table).
Ceramics of the susuya type. It is represented by round -, sharp-and flat-bottomed vessels without a neck, with a wide open mouth. The ornament consists of various compositions made with impressions of a cord or comb stamp. Monuments with these ceramics are currently separated into a separate Susu culture. They are associated with the traditions of the Epidzemon cultures, dating from the V-IV centuries BC (south of Sakhalin) to the II-V centuries AD (south of Sakhalin, north of Hokkaido). According to Yamaura Kiyoshi, the susuya-type vessels in northern Hokkaido are not decorated with comb-like ornaments in contrast to the Sakhalin ones [1985, p. 57]. However, this ornament is found on ceramics found on monuments in the north of Sakhalin and at the mouth of the Amur River. These are ceramics of the esutoru type (Niyoka Takehiko, 1970) and la type (Khanduza monument) [Ibid.], which are included in the ceramic complexes of the Nabil culture in Russian archeology (Vasilevsky et al., 2005). Given the absence of comb ornaments on vessels from Hokkaido, it can be assumed that the influence of ceramics of the Nabil culture in the south of Sakhalin began to manifest itself in the second century AD. It is possible that its spread in this part of the island was due to the displacement of some tribes from the north by carriers of the Polish culture.
Tovada-type ceramics. Poorly profiled vessels, ornamented with punctures under the rim of the corolla and carved lines with notches. These ceramics were used in the V-VI centuries in the south-west of Sakhalin and the north, north-east of Hokkaido. In our opinion, judging by its morphological differences from Susu ceramics and Enoura ceramics, it is a manifestation of an independent culture. In the south-east of Sakhalin Island at this time, probably, people who made ceramics of the Susui type continued to live [Shubina, 1999, p. 238].
According to Yamaura Kiyoshi, towada-type ceramics owe their origin to mainland cultures [1985, p. 61]. It is possible that it is somehow connected with hunting tribes representing the Samarga culture, whose ceramics have through holes or punctures under the rim of the corolla (Dyakov, 1982). This assumption is not without reason : according to recent studies in the North-Eastern Primorye region, the end of the Samarga culture (Dyakova and Dyakov, 2000) coincides with the Mohe period, i.e. coincides with the appearance of tovada ceramics on Sakhalin. At the same time, we cannot exclude the possibility of forming Tovada-type ceramics based on the Tym-type ceramics that existed on Sakhalin in the first millennium BC.*
Ceramics of the enoura type. Along the southern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk up to the northern part of the Kuril Islands there are monuments of the VII-IX centuries. We are inclined to attribute it to the first phase of development of the Okhotsk culture (Fig. 1). Some of its samples are recorded even in the north of Honshu (Suzuki Katsuhiko and Terada Tokuho, 1993). Since the Tobinitai, minami-kaizuka, and Satsumon ceramics were not found in the north of the Kuril Islands (Igarashi Kunihiro, 1989), it is likely that the tradition of making enoura-type ceramics in that area persisted until the 13th century. It is believed that the basis for the formation of the Enoura pottery tradition is the ceramic traditions of the Nayfeld group of the Mohe culture (Kato Simpei, 1975; Kikuchi Toshihiko, 1995). However, it is possible that it is based on the pottery traditions of the Polish culture. Japanese researchers also point to this possibility (Kikuchi Toshihiko, 1995, pp. 109-110).
On the northwestern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, among the materials of the Tokarev culture and the Early Iron Age (Lebedintsev, 1990), there are ceramics similar to those of the enoura-B (Spafariev site) and enoura-A (Kukhtui VIII site) types (Deryugin, 2006).
The Tebakh culture was identified in the Amur estuary zone (Kopytko, 1989), which, in our opinion, is only a local variant of the Okhotsk culture. Among its materials, along with enoura-type ceramics, there is a group of Tebakh - type ceramics-poorly profiled vessels with a taped roller under the corolla, stamped ornaments on the neck and wafer impressions on the body.
* Ceramics of the Tym type were identified based on the results of research in 2006.
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Periodization of types of ceramics of the Okhotsk culture
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Figure 1. Distribution of the main ceramic traditions in the Amur and Okhotsk regions in the 7th century.
Its special feature (type a) is a round bottom. Subsequently, the traditions of Tebakh type ceramics merge with the tradition of Enoura ceramics, resulting in the formation of late enoura-3 type ceramics, which are recorded on the Amur [Deryugin et al., 2003, p. 121, 127], Sakhalin [Kumaki Toshiaki, 2004, p. 73], and in the Northwestern Okhotsk region [Deryugin, 2006,p. 127]. p. 149].
Ceramics of the enoura-V type, which is represented by pot-shaped vessels, often decorated with comb-shaped impressions on the body and a taped roller under the edge of the corolla, existed for quite a short time. Apparently, it is connected with some single penetration of the islands of the inhabitants of the mainland.
Since the eighth century, local differences have been evident due to the spread of the alien population over a wide area, from the mouth of the Amur River to the northern Kuril Islands, which is clearly seen in the transformation of Enoura-type ceramics. In Hokkaido, this pottery tradition marks a transition from carved and stamped ornamentation (kokumon) to the development of a taped ornament (somemmon).
Among researchers, the opinion about the connection of the Okhotsk culture with sea St. John's wort was confirmed, although osteological data indicate that the basis of the economy of the bearers of the Okhotsk culture was sea fishing. According to the calculations of Nishimoto Toyohiro, their diet, according to the materials of the Kabukai monument, consisted of 80% of sea fish in terms of caloric content [Ohopuku..., 1982, pp. 100-101]. The role of pig farming among the Okhotsk population in Hokkaido should not be overstated. The overwhelming majority of pig bones were found only on the Kabukai and Funadomari sites on Rebun Island (Yamada et al., 1995: 74), the closest island to Sakhalin, while the remaining Okhotsk sites contain less than 3% of the total number of bones of this animal found in osteological material.
Burials of the Okhotsk culture in Hokkaido are represented by shallow burial pits.-
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coal shape. Skulls are usually oriented to the northwest. During excavations at the Moero monument, cremation remains were buried in a box made of flat stones [Ohotsuku..., 1982, p. 64]. Bearers of the Okhotsk culture covered the face of the deceased with a stone or a vessel turned upside down. Items of mainland origin are often found in burials, for example, stone and metal parts of combined ear rings, glass beads, metal spearheads, straight - handled swords, parts of typesetting belts, etc.Many of them are similar to materials from the Amur Region cultures of the 7th - early 11th centuries (Kikuchi Toshihiko, 1995, pp. 292-300).
Minami-kaizuka ceramics. The late period of the Okhotsk culture is represented by various variants of minami-kaizuka ceramics in the form of poorly profiled vessels with stamped and carved ornaments, dating back to the middle of the IX-XIII centuries (Fig. 2).Its range includes the entire Sakhalin and the Amur estuary (type f of the Tebakh culture). Minami-kaizuka ceramics are probably related to the easel ceramics of the Pokrovskaya culture (Deryugin, 1998). But it is based on the pottery traditions of Enour and Tebah type ceramics. Similar ceramics are also found in the Northwestern Priokhotye region among the materials of the Ancient Koryak culture from the Stanyukovich site (Deryugin, 2006). In Hokkaido, minami-kaizuka ceramics are found only on the Uennai monument; in a vessel from the Chito-N settlement (Ujie Toshifumi, 1995), one can only see a mixture of satsumon and minami-kaizuka traditions. Apparently, in the X century. the influence of the inhabitants of Sakhalin on the population of Hokkaido completely ceases.
Higashi-taraika type ceramics. Thick-walled weakly profiled vessels decorated with pinholes, carved, stamped and stucco ornaments. It is distributed in Central and possibly Southern Sakhalin. These ceramics lie below the minami-kaizuka layer (Fedorchuk, 1995); the radiocarbon date from the Promyslovoe-2 monument indicates the existence of higashi-taraika ceramics in the late 8th - early 9th centuries. [Fedorchuk, 1998, p. 151].
Ceramics of the motochi type. In the very north of Hokkaido, mixed-type ceramics were recorded, which was named after the Motochi locality on Rebun Island (Ooi Haruo, 1972). Thick-walled vessels with a corolla bent outward are decorated with carved and stamped ornaments. According to some hypotheses, these ceramics appeared in the Okhotsk population in the IX century with the arrival of carriers of the Satsumon culture on the northern islands (Kabukai-5..., 1999, pp. 159-167). The time of its existence, apparently, was short.
Tobinitai type ceramics. In the late period of the Okhotsk culture in the north-east of Hokkaido and in the south of the Kuril Islands, the remnants of the Okhotsk population assimilated by the carriers of the Satsumon culture-
2. Fig. Distribution of the main ceramic traditions in the Amur and Okhotsk seas in the IX-X centuries.
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The nii gave rise to the Tobinitai culture [Kikuchi Tetsuo. 1972]. It has not yet been established which population was dominant in the process of its addition.
Tobinitai ceramics of the X-XIII centuries are represented by high poorly profiled pots and low cups. Pots of two types: a) with a pronounced neck and a straight curved corolla, characteristic of the Okhotsk culture; b) without a pronounced neck with a relief corolla, as in products of the Satsumon culture. There is a combination of the principles of ornamentation. The convex decoration of horizontal rows of thin wavy taped strips of the so-called noodle-shaped ornament, typical of late Okhotsk vessels, is combined with a typical Satsumon ornament of alternating sloping and intersecting carved lines.
In house construction, there is also a mixture of traditions of the Satsumon and Okhotsk cultures. The dwellings are marked as pentagonal in plan with a stone-lined hearth located in the center (Okhotsk tradition), and square in plan with a hearth with a lining or a kamado-type stove (satsumon).
The economic structure of the Tobinitai culture carriers is mostly the same as that of the Okhotsk population. Fishing and sea beast production dominated. However, the monuments of this stage of development of the Okhotsk culture in Hokkaido do not contain pig bones and objects that could be attributed to mainland products (Nakata Yuka, 1996, p. 149-151). Apparently, during this period, the population of Hokkaido temporarily stabilized; the main trade routes passed along the western coast of the island, which caused some isolation of the Tobinitai culture carriers.
Thus, the study of medieval ceramics shows that the so-called Okhotsk culture is divided into a number of cultures that, apart from similar economic principles due to their existence in the same ecological niche, have practically nothing in common with each other. In our opinion, the actual Okhotsk culture is represented by ceramics associated with the Enoura (early period) and Minami-kaizuka (late period) pottery traditions.
Local variants of the end of the first period of the Okhotsk culture should be considered ceramics of the Higashi-tarayka and Motochi types. The Tobinitai culture can be considered independent due to strong transformations, but it is genetically related to the early period of the Okhotsk culture. Tebakh type ceramics in the Amur estuary are an inoculature phenomenon, but the people who made them were involved in the formation of the Okhotsk culture. Ceramics of the Susuya and Tovada types should be considered a manifestation of separate cultures, since the succeeding enoura ceramics have nothing in common with them.
Ethnic identity of the bearers of the Okhotsk culture
The question of the ethnic composition of the bearers of the Okhotsk culture remains difficult to solve. The hypothesis of Aleut-Eskimo roots [Befu and Chard, 1964, p. 11-13] is currently not supported by researchers. Japanese archaeologists tend mainly to two assumptions. The first is stated by Fujimoto Tsuyoshi: the cultures that preceded the Okhotsk Epidzemon period are related to the ancestors of the Ainu, and the Susuya culture in northern Hokkaido and southern Sakhalin goes back to the Epidzemon cultures [1966, pp. 28-44]. Russian scientists also spoke about the Ainu basis in the formation of populations of the Okhotsk population [Shubin, 1977, p.7]. In our opinion, this assumption is valid only in relation to the carriers of the Susu culture. According to the second assumption, the development of the Okhotsk culture is associated with the migration of the population from the Amur region.
Chinese chronicles report that in the seventh century. Sakhalin was inhabited by the Liugui tribe, and in the 13th century - by other tribes: the Tsilimi, Kuwei, and Yulitian [Okhotsuku..., 1982, pp. 66-67, 86, 194]. According to most experts, the Satsumon culture in Hokkaido was represented by the ancestors of the Ainu (Utagawa Hiroshi, 1988). There are different opinions about the ethnic identity of the bearers of the Okhotsk culture. There is an opinion that the Okhotsk culture was represented by Protonivkhs, genetically closely related to the Neolithic tribes of the Lower Amur (Vasilevsky and Golubev, 1976). Kikuchi Toshihiko supports this hypothesis, considering that the bearers of the Okhotsk culture (Liugui and Tsilimi, according to Chinese chronicles) are the ancestors of the Nivkhs (1995, pp. 155-169). However, there are other opinions about the Liugui tribe. A. A. Vasilevsky, based only on the phonetic similarity of the name of the people in Chinese chronicles and the self-names of the peoples of the northern part of the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, comes to the conclusion that the Liugui are close in language and origin to the Koryaks and Chukchi [1999, p.132].
Even the first researchers of the Okhotsk culture noted the influence of continental cultures on its formation. From the point of view of Yoshida Sadayoshi, the carriers of the Okhotsk culture were the Tunguska tribes of the Sushenei, who were influenced by the Ainu and Eskimos (see: Nakamura Itsuki, 1979, pp. 58, 61, 62). B. O. Pilsudsky suggested that the carriers of the Okhotsk culture - the legendary Tonchi - are related to the origin of the Ainu and Eskimo peoples. Tungusic-speaking sushens [1991, pp. 97-99]. It was criticized [Vasilevsky and Golubev, 1976, p. 35]. However, B. O. Pilsudski's hypothesis is supported by the results of craniological studies, as well as reports from Japanese chronicles about the arrival of misihase
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(sushen) on Sado Island as early as 544. [Suzuki Yasutami. 1996, p. 46], although, according to Chinese sources, sushen lived in Primorye and on the lower Amur in the III-IV centuries. [Higuchi Kazushi, 1996, pp. 80-81]. According to craniological data from Hokkaido, Sakhalin, and the Southern Kuril Islands, the Okhotsk population of the Enoura period does not correlate with the modern Nivkh or Ainu, but is very close in its parameters to the modern Ulchi and Nanai (Ishida Hajime, 1991; Ishida Hajime and Enemura Tetsuhide, 1993; Ishida Hajime, 1994). to the Baikal craniological type. It is possible that the population, which was genetically related to the bearers of the Okhotsk culture and had ancient Tunguska roots, continued to live in the north of the Kuril Islands until Modern times. The first Europeans who visited these islands noted the similarity of their inhabitants with the Tungusae (Georgi, 1999, p. 131).
Among the arguments in favor of the hypothesis about the origin of the Okhotsk population from representatives of the Nayfeld group of the Mokhe culture, craniological series from the Western Amur region deserve special attention. Skulls from the Shapka burial ground, which belongs to the Nayfeld group of monuments of the Mohe culture of the late 7th - 9th centuries, correlated with the Heishui Mohe tribes, belong not to the Baikal, but to the Far Eastern type of Mongoloids (Chikisheva and Nesterov, 2000). Skulls from the Troitsky burial ground in the Western Amur region, which is believed to have served as the burial site of sumo mohe, are correlated with the Baikal type (Alekseev, 1980, pp. 106-130). If the carriers of the Okhotsk culture on Sakhalin and Hokkaido belong to the Nayfeld group, then why are their craniological features characteristic of the skulls of the Trinity group, and not of the Nayfeld group? The answer to this question is currently unavailable.
According to the Chinese chronicles of the 13th century, at the final stage of the Okhotsk culture on Sakhalin, Beishan Yezhen reindeer herders also lived among the Qilimi people [Okhotsuku..., 1982, p. 193]. Petroglyphs near the former May camp, which stylistically correlate with the materials of the Tebakh culture, indicate that the Amur population was engaged in reindeer husbandry in the Okhotsk period. According to A. P. Okladnikov, the reindeer herding tribes that left the May petroglyphs may have migrated to the Amur River from the Angara basin around the tenth century [1971, p. 130]. This assumption was supported by us, but on the basis of modern ideas about the time of existence of Tebakh type ceramics, the time when reindeer herding tribes came to the Amur River was dated to the VI-VII centuries. [Deryugin and Kositsyna, 1999].A. A. Vasilevsky, based on the analysis of the location of summer and winter camps in the north of Sakhalin, assumes that reindeer herding occurred in the Okhotsk (Tebakh) period [2005a, p. 135].
For us, the hypothesis of the polyethnic composition of the bearers of the Okhotsk culture is preferable (see [Deryugin, 2002]). However, one cannot ignore the views of the Okhotsk culture as "local Mohe archaeological cultures" and the "mestizo Mohe-Ainu Tobinitai culture" (Vasilevsky, 2005b, p. 75). The Ainu component of the Tobinitai culture is present, because there is quite convincing evidence that the Satsumon culture, which served as the basis for the formation of the Tobinitai culture, belongs to the Ainu ancestors. However, the use of the ethnonym mohe in relation to the Okhotsk culture, which, according to studies in the Western Amur region (Drevnosti Burei, 2000), is applied to various ethnic groups, is considered somewhat premature.
Conclusion
Judging by their morphological differences from the ceramics of the subsequent period, the monuments with ceramics of the Susuya and Tovada types introduced earlier in the Okhotsk culture typolist represent independent cultures. The concept of "Okhotsk culture" should be associated with the population that owned the Enourage pottery tradition. Monuments with minami-kaizuka ceramics should be attributed to the late stage of development of the Okhotsk culture, since there is a continuity between this type of ceramics and Enoura ceramics. The cultures identified by some researchers (for example, the Tebakh culture) that coexisted with the Okhotsk culture can only be considered local variants of the latter. Some local types of ceramics (for example, higashi-taraika, motochi) associated with the Enoura pottery tradition require more detailed study.
Carriers of the Okhotsk culture represent different ethnic groups, but some of them were associated with the Tungus who migrated to the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk from the Amur region. Among the Okhotsk people there was also a local island population, as can be seen from the dynamics of various local variants of enoura-type ceramics.
Supporting the assumption about the Nayfeld origins of the Enoura pottery tradition, we cannot agree with the interpretation of the Okhotsk culture as a "local Mohe archaeological culture". Significant differences between these cultures, which were manifested in the funeral rite, housing construction, and economic structure and were due to the ecological uniqueness of their areas, do not allow us to speak about the presence of the Mohe culture in the Okhotsk Sea. To explain the presence of common elements in the Okhotsk and Mokhes cultures, an organi-zation is required.-
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Further research should be conducted in the North-Eastern Amur region, where contacts between these two cultures should have taken place.
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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 18.01.07.
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