The word "nara" means "plain". Indeed, this city lies on the flat bottom of a basin surrounded by forested mountains. Nara was the capital of Japan from 710 to 784. It would seem that not so long. However, for Japan at that time, the time interval of 74 years seems significant: the fact is that before the foundation of Nara, there is no need to talk about the capital in the modern sense of the word. This or that sovereign built a palace for himself, which he and his courtiers occupied only for the duration of his reign. After the death of the ruler, the court moved to a new place, which was associated with the ideas of the ancient Japanese about the ritual impurity of a place desecrated by death.
Beginning in the seventh century, one palace became the residence of several successive rulers. So, from the Fujiwara Palace, Japan was ruled by three generations of sovereigns (it should be borne in mind that at that time Japan was called "the land of Yamato" or "The Land of Reed Fields"). But the Fujiwara age was also short-lived: from 694 to 710. Fujiwara was designed in the likeness of the capital of China, Chang'an, and was a typical bureaucratic city with a pre-defined layout. Its size at that time
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They were quite large (2.6 by 1.7 km), and the population ranged from 30 to 40 thousand people1 .
And yet, the only real city of the Japanese early Middle Ages can be considered Naru. In addition to the rulers themselves (and there were seven of them in Nara - Genmei, Gensho, Semu, Koken, Junnin, Shotoku, Konin), about 200 thousand people lived in the capital and its immediate suburbs at the time of its heyday: 10 thousand officials, artisans, peasants, monks 2 . In addition to them, the city was flooded with people without a specific occupation, mostly peasants who fled from the province from excessive tax oppression to the capital, where large-scale charity events were carried out. In 773, for example, benefits were issued to almost 20 thousand people in need. However, the looting, murder and arson committed by the city's lumpens so annoyed the authorities that a special sovereign decree drove the vagabonds out of the city.
From the very beginning, the capital was built according to a plan that also had much in common with the capital of China, which was then a role model for the rulers of Japan in various areas of administrative, economic and cultural activities. The construction of a continental-style capital was one of the most important measures to transform Japan from a semi-barbarian kingdom into an empire, which was to be facilitated by numerous reforms that began in the middle of the seventh century. In 646, a decree consisting of four articles 3 was promulgated . According to the first of them, the former hereditary system of owning slaves and land was abolished. Instead, State ownership of land was proclaimed and fixed feedings were allocated according to rank. Article 2 prescribed a new territorial division of the country into provinces and counties; the status of the capital was determined. Article 3 announced the census of households and the compilation of registers for land redistribution. Article 4 abolished the former (arbitrary) labor service and established the amount of natural household taxation. The reform was designed to strengthen the central government, codified the management system, determined the relationship between the center and the periphery, fixing the amount of regular taxation.
The entire second half of the seventh century was marked by increased activity of the state in the field of legislation. Subsequently, individual decrees were consolidated, and on their basis, in 701, the first universal legislation "Taihore" was completed, which served with additions and modifications as the basis of feudal legislation throughout the Middle Ages. According to "Taiho Ritsura"and" Epo Ritsura " 4 (757), the administrative and official apparatus of the Japanese state was a complex and branched hierarchical system with strict subordination from top to bottom. The economic basis of the country was the state monopoly on land. In this way, the peasants who received land plots from the State were exploited. This exploitation took the form of a tax on agricultural and handicraft products. There was also labor service. The construction of Nara was a necessary condition for Japan's transformation into a bureaucratic state. The news of the construction of the new capital was received with displeasure by the people, because the common people understood that this threatened to tighten labor duties. Therefore, the government announced the abolition of taxes in 709.
It is not entirely clear why the court left Fujiwara, which was designed on a grand scale, but served as a residence for a short time. Many researchers believe that the new capital, unlike the old one, completely corresponded to the orientation along the Fengshui axis - the traditional Chinese way of arranging buildings in space: to the east of the capital there was a river; to the south there was a pond, beyond it stretched a plain; to the west the city was bounded by a wide road; from the north there were mountains that turned into hills the capital on three sides. The construction of a grandiose city measuring 4.8 by 4.3 km at that time required the mobilization of colossal people-
1 Wheatley P., See Th. From Court to Capital. A Tentative Interpretation of the Origins of the Japanese Urban Tradition. Chicago - Lnd. 1978, pp. 113 - 115.
2 Ibid., pp. 140 - 141.
3 Popov K. A. Zakonodatel'nye akty srednevekovoi Japonii [Legislative Acts of Medieval Japan]. Moscow, 1984, pp. 52-77.
4 For the text of monuments, see: Laws. Tokyo. 1976 (in English). For a partial translation, see: Konrad N. I. Izbrannye trudy [Selected Works]. Istoriya [History], Moscow, 1974, pp. 99-113.
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other resources. The construction involved both peasants who were serving their labor service (every 50 yards provided two men, who changed after three years), and "hired" workers who were on allowance and received some payment. The term "hired" is conditional, since these people were forced to work on the construction site. A "temporary military department" was established to supervise forced laborers and catch fugitives.
Nara is a north-south quadrilateral in plan. A wide highway - Suzaku ("Red Bird") divided the city into right and left parts (west and east). From north to south, the city was intersected by nine streets, and from west to east-by eight, thus forming 72 blocks. The sovereign's palace and administrative buildings, organized into a single architectural complex, were located in the northern part of the capital. In Chang'an, the palace and ministries were located separately. When following foreign models, the Japanese did not blindly copy them, but tried to adapt them to the needs of their country. Urban planning is no exception here. Unlike the Chinese capital, Nara was never surrounded by fortress walls, because the internal situation in Japan at that time was relatively calm, and the country's insular position saved it from invasion from outside. Another difference from Chang'an was the construction material: in Japan, stone and brick were not used in the construction of buildings at that time. The entire city, including the palace and temples, was built of wood, which made it very vulnerable to fire. However, to the eyes of a provincial traveler, the city was magnificent: "The capital of Nara is beautiful in the blue of the sky, blooming like a fragrant flower." 5
These lines are not only a metaphorical delight of the poet: the city really bloomed gardens. Cherry and orange trees, camellias, wisteria and other ornamental plants were planted around the palace, temples and homes of aristocrats. If you add to this the extraordinary scale of the capital at that time, then you can understand why the city served as a source of poetic inspiration. There were many Buddhist temples in Nara (48 in 720), and their number was constantly increasing. Some temples were moved to the city from the former royal residences-Asuki and Fujiwara. The rulers of Japan generally paid considerable attention to the Buddhist faith, which became widespread there from the middle of the sixth century: Buddhism was designed to resist Shintoism - tribal, largely disparate cults of the local religion, which prevented the creation of a strong central government. Influential clans attributed their origins to Shinto deities, relying on their own version of the myth and trying to defend the greatest antiquity of their kind, which served as a source of constant internal political friction .6
Buddhism, initially devoid of real historical roots on Japanese soil, was a convenient tool for conducting various unification events. It was assumed that the worship of the same Buddhas and bodhisattvas would ensure uniformity in other areas of life. The authorities were not so much interested in the dogmatic subtleties of the faith as in the contribution of Buddhism to the policy of the sovereigns, and the prayers of the monks were designed to ensure peace and prosperity of the country. Therefore, the rulers severely condemned monks who spent their time arguing about the ultimate essence of the Buddha's teachings. "They see the holy teaching as the main thing, not the emperor's plans," 7 one of the decrees says angrily. But the ruling dynasty could not abandon the traditional values of Shinto: after all, its mythological system, according to which the sovereign is a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, served as the ideological basis for hereditary rule.
The construction of Buddhist temples was carried out on a grand scale. Their pagodas were practically the only structures that violated the "earthiness"of a single-story Bunk. Especially notable was the size of the grandiose Todaiji Temple, which covered an area of more than 90 hectares. It was built in the middle of the eighth century on the vow of the ruler of Semu (724-749), who was so pre - emptive that it was built in the middle of the eighth century.-
5 Collection of Myriad Leaves (poetry anthology of the mid-eighth century). Tokyo. 1971, N 328 (in Russian).
6 For more information, see: Meshcheryakov A. N. Buddhism and Shintoism in the public life of Japan in the VI-VIII centuries. (based on official chronicles). - Peoples of Asia and Africa, 1979, N 1.
7 Continuation of the Annals of Japan (chronicle compiled in 794). Tokyo. 1975, Epo, 6 - 7 - 10 (in English).
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such an adept of a foreign religion that he called himself a " slave of the Buddha." In the mind of the ruler, the temple symbolized the power of the state, personified in the ruler. The decree stated: "With all my thoughts I strive for salvation and with all my strength I cherish the care of my subjects. Although generosity is already flourishing on the outskirts, the Celestial Empire is not yet blessed with the Buddha's creed. Truly, the mysterious splendor of the Teaching brings Heaven and Earth into a state of harmony, makes ten thousand generations happy, and animals and plants gain strength. On the 15th day of the 10th moon of the 15th year of the Tempe era... I made a great bodhisattva vow and promised to cast a copper-and-gold statue of Vairocana Buddha. I promise to cast a statue of the best copper found in the land, build high mountains, and build a temple... I am the one who holds the wealth in the Middle Kingdom. I am the ruler of power in the Middle Kingdom. With this wealth and power, let a venerable statue be erected. " 8
The fulfillment of the vow was associated with difficulties, because the height of the statue was 18 meters. First, we made a wooden frame. It was tied with ropes and plastered with clay, over which bronze plates were reinforced. After polishing, a gold coating was applied. According to temple lore, 520,000 carpenters and 1.67 million unskilled laborers worked on the construction of Todaiji. The statue of Vairocana was made by 370 thousand craftsmen together with 510 thousand assistants. Donations were received from more than 400 thousand donors 9 . It is difficult to verify the truth of these figures, but there is no doubt that the implementation of a grandiose project was not easy.
Todaiji burned twice, in the 12th and 16th centuries. After the second fire, the temple lay in ruins for about a century. Rebuilt in the early 17th century, it only partially resembled the original structure. In addition to the" Golden Pavilion " erected around the Daibutsu statue, the Todaiji Ensemble features two seven-tiered pagodas, a library, buildings for sermons, and a bell tower with a 49-ton bronze bell. The Golden Pavilion is currently the largest wooden structure in the world. It is 49 meters high, 57 meters wide, and 50 meters long. Of particular interest is the Sesoin treasury, which has been preserved in its original form. This pile structure impresses with its strict beauty and organic forms. Today, Sesoin preserves unique examples of ancient art.
By the time Todaiji was built, Nara Buddhism was strongly associated with the idea of statehood. It is not without reason that Tachibana Naramaro, who raised a rebellion in 757, when asked about the reason for his discontent, replied that the construction of Todaiji laid an unbearable burden on the people .10 The Todaiji Temple was not only the largest center of worship. It also held ceremonies that were far from its intended purpose, such as conferring court ranks11 . Buddhist temples owned huge plots of land. Todaiji fields, located in various parts of the country, were cultivated by 5 thousand families.
The scale of the city dictated the need for a developed product exchange. For this purpose, two markets were built in the city. They sold rice, vegetables, seashells, textiles, writing materials, perfumes, dishes, charcoal, Buddhist texts, and much more. The size of trade can be judged by the fact that in 765, when the price of rice rose sharply, the treasury threw out 1 thousand koku of rice (about 150 tons) for sale in each of the two markets. Chinese coins were used, as well as money of local coinage. It is believed that the first Japanese coin was minted during the reign of Temmu (673 - 686), 12 but this act was rather symbolic, since rice and fabrics continued to have real exchange value. The tax was also collected only by products of agriculture and handicrafts. In Nara itself, commodity-money relations quickly became more active, but they did not become widespread outside the capital.
Along with the foundation of Nara, the social structure of Japanese society also stabilized to some extent, and it did not change significantly during the eighth century. The era of reform is over. By that time, a clear separation from other social groups is being formed.
8 Ibid., Tempe, 15 - 10 - 15.
9 Hayakawa S. The State of time "ritsure". In: History of Japan, vol. 4. Tokyo. 1974, p. 273 (in Russian).
10 Continuation of the Annals of Japan. Tempe hoji, 1 - 7 - 4."
11 Ibid. Tempe seho, 1 - 11 - 19; 1 - 4 - 14; 2 - 11 - 4; 3 - 1 - 14 etc.
12 Hayakawa S. Uk. soch., pp. 148-149.
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the bureaucracy, which had considerable privileges, the most important of which was exemption from taxes. Moreover, if officials from the 8th to the 6th rank were exempt from taxes only personally, then for officials of higher ranks, the category of people who were not taxed included their fathers and sons (5th and 4th ranks), grandfathers, fathers, brothers, sons and grandchildren (3rd and 4th ranks).1st, 2nd, and 1st ranks). The bureaucracy was clearly labeled as a social group responsible for collecting taxes, not paying them. Thus, the stratification is clearly visible within the bureaucracy itself. The amount of salary, the provision of servants who were on the state allowance, the degree of punishment for committed offenses and crimes, the cut of clothing-all this changed as they advanced in the service.
In Japan, as in China, in order to become an official, it was necessary to pass state exams. However, in reality, this system in Japan was limited in nature, in fact extending only to the lower ranks. And for officials from the 4th rank and above, there was a system of "shadow ranks", according to which their descendants were assigned established ranks upon reaching the age of 21, regardless of their real knowledge and merits. So, the sons and grandsons of a dignitary of the 1st rank immediately complained about the 5th rank, which, given the limited places in the civil service, made it almost impossible for people from the lower social strata to achieve any significant positions. According to research by Japanese scientists, it was impossible for the sons of an official below the 6th rank to rise above the 4th rank and the corresponding 13 positions .
The training of bureaucracy personnel was carried out in the school of officials, established in 670; it taught works of Confucian classics and mathematical works. In 728, Chinese literature and the study of laws were added to these subjects. The number of students was 400, and those who had a rank of at least 5th were freely allowed to join them. Persons from the 6th to the 8th rank could study at the school only after special permission, which also contributed to the self-reproduction of higher officials. In 701, provincial schools with 20 to 50 students were organized to train minor officials .14
Japanese social thought in the eighth century divided the entire population into two main categories: remin ("good people") and sammin ("mean people"). The first category included: ki (officials from the 1st to the 3rd rank), tsuki (4th and 5th ranks), all other officials, byakute (free community members), shinabe and joko (artisans who were directly dependent on the court, assigned to the relevant departments and released from paying poll tax, which in their position was not a privilege, but a deprivation of it). The sammin category, also exempt from tax, included: ryoko (guards of royal tombs), kanko (criminals and their families turned into state slaves), kannin (private addicts), konuhi (state slaves) and sinuhi (private slaves).
Nara was famous for its temples. But it was their growing power that prompted the rulers of Japan to leave the "blooming capital". The year 770 refers to an attempted coup by the monk Doke, who gained the confidence of the Empress Shotoku (764-770) .15 The attempt remained an attempt, the Doc was exiled. But since that time, there has been some cooling of the authorities towards Buddhism. In 784, the court moved further away from the powerful monasteries, to Nagaoka, and 10 years later - to Heian (modern day). Kyoto). The Nara loses its former liveliness and brilliance. "The capital of Nara is emptying and running wild, my dear soul. I go out of the house, and my sorrow increases. " 16 These poems were composed by an unknown poet during the short departure of the sovereign from the capital. Officials, merchants and artisans are leaving the city. Mostly monks remain. So from the capital of the country, Nara becomes the "capital of temples". These temples do not move anywhere, attracting many pilgrims to Nara. In addition, most of the "official temples", i.e. those in which prayers were offered for the welfare of the state, remain in Nara. The list of official temples of the 10th century includes 15 such temples
13 Ibid., p. 155.
14 Masayoshi S., Swain D. L. Science and Culture in Traditional Japan, A. D. 600 - 1854. Cambridge. 1976, pp. 31 - 36.
15 For more information, see: Bender R. The Hachiman Cult and the Dokyo Incident. - Monumenta Nipponica, vol. XXXIX, 1979, N 2.
16 Collection of Myriad Leaves, No. 1049.
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11 were located in the former capital. But the city's population is no longer reaching its previous size. At the turn of the XII-XIII centuries, about 10 thousand people lived permanently in Nara. The city was divided into several villages grouped around the largest shrines. And even now it is relatively small: 200 thousand people live in it.
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