In the materials of medieval monuments of Primorye, the most striking finds are miniature sculptures made of stone and glass - netsuke. Currently, there are 29 such keychains known. All of them are found on monuments dating back to the time of the Jurchen state of Eastern Xia (1115-1233). The characteristic style and certain standardization of these sculptures suggest that the Jurchens had their own distinctive direction in small plastic art. They have netsuke appeared in the XIII century. No similar sculptures were found on earlier monuments. Therefore, researchers are right to suggest that the Japanese and Mongols may have borrowed netsuke from the Jurchens.
Keywords: netsuke, Jurchen, small plastic, Eastern Xia state, Primorye, medieval archeology, decorative and applied arts, material culture.
Among the huge archaeological material found on medieval monuments of Primorye, the most striking finds are miniature sculptures that were included in the literature under the name netsuke (Shavkunov, 1969). They impress with their realism, beauty, they are really works of art.
The term "netsuke" is usually used to refer to traditional Japanese key chains-pendants in the form of a miniature sculpture made of stone, glass, bone, metal, usually with a hole in the center through which a string was passed. On the opposite side of the netsuke, either a tobacco pouch, a bunch of keys, or a box of incense were attached on a string, and the keychain served as a counterweight. The cord was passed through the belt, and the netsuke hung over it. Such a device was necessary when there were no pockets on the clothes. It is believed that netsuke under the name "zhong-tzu" appeared in China in the XV-XVI centuries, and from there the custom of wearing artistically designed key rings was borrowed by the Japanese during the Tokugawa period (1603-1868). It was at this time that the art of netsuke flourished in Japan. By the middle of the 18th century, all its characteristic features (specific forms, a set of materials, a range of subjects) were formed there, and regional differences and schools appeared. However, among the Jurchens, key rings of the netsuke type appeared in the XIII century, so it was suggested that the Japanese and Mongols could have borrowed the tradition of making such products from them [Ibid.].
Jurchen fine plastic is an area of decorative art that was created by the traditions of more than one ethnic group. Jurchens, having become familiar with Chinese achievements in artistic metalworking, jewelry and stone-cutting, began to apply them as the most attractive ones. It is well known that in 1126, when they captured Kaifeng, they took out not only ceremonial and Buddhist utensils, imperial regalia, sacrificial equipment, but also 20 masters of gold painting, 30 goldsmiths, jewelers, stonemasons and 100 stone carvers. Jurchens received art and jewelry in the form of gifts and offerings from the Sung Emperor and the court (Vorobyov, 1983, p. 200).
Currently, in Primorye, on medieval monuments of the XIII century, dating back to the time of the existence of the-
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During the Jurchen state of Eastern Xia (1115-1233), 29 keychains of the netsuke type were found. The first such finds were published by E. V. Shavkunov, who described three sculptures and raised the question of their purpose [1969]. Subsequently, the researcher, considering the problem of the Scythian-Siberian animal style and its appearance in the Far East in the Middle Ages, described later similar finds [Shavkunov, 1990, pp. 142-148]. According to a number of external features, E. V. Shavkunov identified five main types of these netskes: 1) three-dimensional sculptural images of mammals, birds and fish; 2) paired figures of animals; 3) planar sculptures; 4) metal trinkets of oval shape with a slit-like opening, consisting of two flaps, on the front sides of which images of a lying deer in one case, and a wriggling dragon in others are made by bas - relief casting techniques; 5) netsuke in the form of a flower (chrysanthemum and peony). This typology needs to be clarified at the moment: the type 4 keyfobs selected by the author should most likely be considered penetrations that were part of the time headset.
We suggest that netsuke include stone and glass miniature sculptures depicting mammals, birds, fish, people, flowers, with the functions of keychains that have through holes in the center, as well as similar in technique and style without a hole. According to the image object, they can be divided into several types.
Keychains of the netsuke type in the form of mammals
(11 copies). All of them are made in a very realistic manner. Animals (each clearly identifiable) are depicted lying or sitting, in a calm state.
The dog-shaped netsuke charm found in the hoisting material from the Shaiginsky settlement (Sh05-P-2) is made of well-polished gray stone (Fig. 1). The dimensions of the figurine are 22 × 15×10 mm. The dog is shown lying down, with its front legs bent to the hind legs, the latter covered from above by the tail, and its head turned to the tail. It seems that the dog is sleeping, and in this position the animals fall asleep when they are cold. The ancient master, highlighting the spine and ribs of the dog, showed its slimness. The muzzle is elongated, the eyes and nose are detailed, and the ears are short and drooping. By these signs, you can determine the breed - a cop. A hole was made in the center of the figurine, thanks to which it was attached to something. It is interesting to note that the reverse side of the product is flat. This makes it possible to place it on a flat surface. Here you can clearly see that the master, most likely, carried away by his occupation, cutting out the leg of the figure, worked out its details on the reverse side (usually it was not designed): even the fingers on the paw are clearly visible.
The sculptural image of a lion from the dwelling 83 of the Shaiginsky settlement (Sh72-83-29) is made of rock crystal (Fig. 2). The figure is badly erased. Its dimensions are 31 × 19×24 mm. A vertical hole with a diameter of 3 mm is located in the central part. The base of the figure is flat. The lion is shown lying down, with its legs bent under its belly, and its head turned to the left relative to its body. Well-developed mane in the form of vertical grooves, ears, paws and tail of the animal.
The deer figurine found at the Shaiginsky settlement during the excavation of the central gate of the monument (Sh-V-22) is made of glass (Fig. 3). Netsuke dimensions are 34 × 23×6 mm. The base of the figure is flat. The central vertical hole has a diameter of 3 mm. The deer is depicted lying on its belly, with its legs bent. Its head is up, its mouth is open, and its neck and ears are tense. It seems that the animal gives a call. Interestingly, the horns are shown - in the form of a three-headed crown.
The paired image of seal pups from dwelling 20 of the Shaiginsky settlement (Sh7-20-6) is made of quartz-sericite rock, which resembles ivory in color (Fig. 4). The dimensions of the sculpture are 25 × 20×24 mm. Its base is flat. A vertical hole with a diameter of 4 mm is located in the central part. The figures of two seals with their bellies pressed together are rather sketchy, but at first glance you can clearly see who is depicted. The obese body hanging over the flippers is well conveyed.
The monkey figurine made of lifting material collected in the area of the South Ussuri settlement (Yu-U08-P-1) does not have a through hole, but in terms of execution technique and style, it can be attributed to the category of netsuke (Fig. 5). The sculpture is made of brownish-yellow steatite. Its height is approx. 40 mm. The monkey is depicted sitting in thought, with its knees drawn up to its stomach, on which the paws are bent at the elbows, the hands are pressed together and support the chin. The right foot rests on the left. Well-developed fingers. Round eyes and nose are highlighted on the muzzle. Thick, long hair on the animal's head is shown.
Keychains of the netsuke type in the form of a hare were found at the Shaiginsky settlement in four dwellings. The figure from dwelling 23 (W7-23-4) is made of rock crystal (Fig. Its dimensions are 25 × 17×10 mm, the diameter of the vertical hole is 1.5 mm. The base of the sculpture is flat. A short-eared hare is shown sleeping. The legs are bent under the abdomen. The back is arched. The muzzle rests on the front paws. Well-developed ears, paws and tail.
Figurine from the dwelling 79 (W-72-79-29 It is also made of rock crystal (Fig. 6, b). Its dimensions are 22 × 16×20 mm, the diameter of the vertical hole is 2 mm.
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1. Netsuke in the form of a dog. Shaiginsky ancient settlement. Stone.
Fig. 2. Lion figurine. Shaiginsky ancient settlement. Rock crystal.
Рис. 3. Нэцкэ в виде оленя. Шайгинское городище. Стекло.
Рис. 4. Парное изображение тюленят. Шайгинское городище. Кварц.
Figure 5. Monkey figurine. South Ussuri settlement. Steatitis.
6. Netsuke in the form of a hare. Shaiginsky ancient settlement. a, b-rock crystal; c-glass; d-quartz.
The base is flat. This sculpture resembles the previous one, except that it shows a long-eared hare.
The figure from dwelling 73 (W71-73-9) is made of bluish glass (Fig. 6, c). Its dimensions are 36 × 22×15 mm.
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The vertical hole in the section is rectangular, 3×15 mm. The base of the sculpture is flat. The figure is made in a realistic manner. All the details are well worked out. The hare is shown lying down, its hind legs tucked under its belly, its front legs stretched out, its head lowered, and its nose tightly pressed against its legs. Elongated eyes are clearly visible. Flattened ears betray the alertness of the hare.
The figure from dwelling 254 (Sh87-254-1) is made of white quartz (Fig. 6, d). Its dimensions are 32 × 18×21 mm. A vertical hole with a diameter of 3 mm is located in the middle of the sculpture. The base is flat. Interestingly, in the place where the hole is drilled, there is a groove slightly wider than the hole, 2-3 mm deep. The functional purpose of this groove, which is also present in some other figures, is not clear, perhaps it served for additional fastening of the sculpture. The sculpture conveys the image of a reclining bunny. The hind legs are tucked under the abdomen, the front legs are stretched forward, but not brought together, because they are short in rabbits, and a short muzzle with a well-defined nose and eyes is located between them. The ears are long and close to the back. The tail is short.
Keychains of the netsuke type in the form of a mouse are represented by two finds from the Shaiginsky settlement. The figure from dwelling 72 (Sh9-72-5) is made of black mudstone (Fig. Its dimensions are 25 × 18×10 mm, the diameter of the vertical hole is 5 mm. The base is flat. The sculpture depicts a sitting mouse, with its hind legs tucked under the abdomen, and its head lowered to the front. It seems that she is gnawing on something. The ears are decorated with two stripes on the parietal part of the head and one on the frontal. The nose is well chiseled and the eyes are marked with depressions.
The figure from dwelling 263 (W-263-20) is made of black obsidian (Fig. 7, b). Its dimensions are 36 × 15×14 mm. The base is flat. The vertical hole is oval in shape and, compared to other netsuks, very large-20x8 mm. The sculpture also depicts a sitting mouse. The paws are shown schematically, but the ears and nose are well chiseled, between which the wool is marked with carved lines. The eyes are shown as cut-out depressions. The tail is short, so it gives the impression that it is not a mouse, but a hamster.
Keychains of the netsuke type in the form of birds (3 copies). All of them depict calm, resting birds. It should be emphasized that medieval masters displayed bird feathers (and not only on keychains) in horizontal stripes. These trinkets take into account the color of birds: the figures of swans are made of light stone, and partridges are made of light brown.
The swan figurine found at the Shaiginsky settlement in dwelling 21 (Sh7-21-4) is made of milky-white quartz (Fig. Its dimensions are 28 × 22×23 mm, the diameter of the vertical hole is 3.5 mm. The base is flat. It shows a sleeping swan with its neck stretched back and its head resting on its wings. The furrows are well developed closed eyes, beak and wings. The wing feathers are shown as horizontal stripes.
A key chain in the form of a paired image of swans, found in the dwelling 73 of the Shaiginsky settlement (Sh71-73-30), is made of milky-white jade (Fig. 8, b). The dimensions of the sculpture are 35 × 19×20 mm. The base is flat. Swans are depicted with their breasts pressed together, their necks crossed, each head resting on the base of the partner's neck. Beaks, heads and wings are well designed, and the latter are decorated with horizontal stripes, as in the previous figure. The overall impression of the sculpture is complete unity. A central vertical hole with a diameter of 3 mm in the upper part passes between the swans ' heads. There is also an additional hole, which is located under the head of one bird and connects to the main one.
A paired image of partridges from dwelling 93 of the Shaiginsky settlement (Sh73-93-33) is made of ivory quartz-sericite rock (Fig. 9). Dimensions 40×24×17 mm. The base is oval. This is the only sculpture that is not held on the plane in an upright position. Very realistic depiction of two birds, which, pressing their breasts, put their heads on each other's backs. Open beaks marked with grooves and eyes in the form of depressions are shown. The feathers on the wings, as in the previous sculptures, are transmitted by horizontal grooves. But here the wings are also decorated with vertical stripes.
Netsuke type keychain in the form of a man and a bird
(Figure 10). It was found on the Ananyevsky hillfort in dwelling 107 (A02-107-8). Made of ivory stone. Dimensions 33 × 17×10 mm, vertical hole diameter 2 mm. The base is flat. A person is shown with a disproportionately large head. A similar technique can be traced on bronze votive hanging sculptures (spirits of ancestors). The person is depicted in a sitting position, the head seems to hang over the body. She is bald, as is customary in the tradition of Taoist monks. The face is clearly Mongoloid, the eyes, nose and mouth are shown in small depressions, the expression is detached. The hands are raised, the left hand is resting on the bird, which is poorly distinguishable. Only the wings are clearly visible, decorated, as in the sculptures of swans, with horizontal stripes. Researchers have associated this composition with the image of one of the immortals sitting on a sacred crane, or stork, or swan (Horev and Brodyansky, 2003, p.191).
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Fig. 7. Mouse figures. Shaiginsky ancient settlement. a-mudstone; b-obsidian.
Figure 8. Netsuke in the form of a swan. Shaiginsky ancient settlement. a - quartz; b-jade.
Keychains of the netsuke type in the form of fish (3 copies). In the depiction of fish, the Jurchens develop a special technique for transferring scales - this is a diamond-shaped grid.
The figure of a carp (Fig. 11, a) was found on the Shaiginsky hillfort in dwelling 141 (Sh-141-8). It is made of white jade. Dimensions 42 × 20×7 mm, vertical hole diameter 3 mm. The base is flat. It is very similar that the carp is depicted at the moment of feeding: the mouth is open, raised up, the lips are well developed. There are growths on the nose. The eyes are shown as round depressions. Stripes underline the gills. The entire body is covered with a small diamond-shaped mesh (scales). The upper and lower fins are shown. The tail is transmitted in motion, curved, worked out with fan-shaped grooves.
The crucian carp figurine found in dwelling 177 of the Shaiginsky settlement (Sh-177-10) is carved from white jade (Fig. 11, b). Its dimensions are 34 × 17×9 mm. The base is flat. The vertical hole is oval, 3×5 mm. Most likely, the crucian carp is depicted during a jump. Its back is curved and goes into the tail. The head with the upper fin is represented by a single line. A double groove shows the gills. The tail is also highlighted, decorated with fan-shaped stripes. On the body, the scales are transmitted by a diamond-shaped grid.
A paired image of fish from dwelling 10 of the Shaiginsky settlement (Sh5-10-24) is made of quartz rocks (Fig. 12). It is close to planar. The dimensions of the sculpture are 36.0×19.0×5.5 mm. Symmetrical ovals are drilled in its central part.-
Figure 9. Paired image of partridges. Shaiginsky ancient settlement. Quartz.
10. Netsuke in the form of a human and a bird. Ananyevskoe settlement. Quartz.
Fig. 11. Figures of carp (a) and crucian carp (b). Shaiginsky settlement. Jade.
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Fig. 12. Paired image of fish. Shaiginsky ancient settlement. Quartz.
13. Netsuke in the form of a peony. Shaiginsky ancient settlement. a - jade; b-quartz.
large holes (9 × 3 mm), which show that two fish are represented, connected by heads, bellies and tails. The heads and tails are marked with double grooves. Scales are conveyed by carved arc-shaped lines.
Keychains of the netsuke type in the form of flowers (2 copies). The image of a peony found on the Shaiginsky hillfort in dwelling 124 (Sh-124-9) is made of white jade (Fig. 13, a). It has been published under the name "chrysanthemum" (Shavkunov, 1990, p. 146). In the lower part of the flower, the open five - leaf peony is clearly visible. Netsuke dimensions are 30 × 18×13 mm, the vertical hole diameter is 3 mm. The base is flat.
Another key ring in the form of a peony (Fig. 13, b) was found on the same hillfort in dwelling 144 (Sh-144-3). It is made of white-milky quartz and represents a flower bud. Dimensions 32 × 21×16 mm, vertical hole diameter 3 mm. The base is flat. It should be emphasized that in the image of peonies, the lower three leaves are very similar to lotus leaves, so it may well be that the Jurchens reproduced the "collective image" of the flower.
In the collection of fine plastics, there are stone products in the form of geometric shapes (triangles, polyhedra), which clearly had a functional purpose of netsuke. Their bases are flat.
14. Netsuke - "triangles". Shaiginskoye (a-d) and Ananyevskoye (e) ancient settlements. a-quartzite; b-quartz; c-obsidian; d - rock crystal; e-obsidian; e-agate.
15. 14-sided Netsuke. Shaiginsky ancient settlement. Quartz.
16. Netsuke in the form of a 20-sided rectangle. Kruglaya Sopka settlement. Rock crystal.
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All of them are small in size with vertical holes. Moreover, in shape and size, some products are very close to figurines.
Keychains of the netsuke type in the form of geometric shapes (9 copies). Six of them have a shape close to a triangle, and three are polyhedra.
Five netsuke "triangles" were discovered at the Shaiginsky settlement. The key ring from dwelling 256 (W-256-56) is made of white quartzite (Fig. Its dimensions are 22 × 16×11 mm, the diameter of the central hole is 3 mm. The key ring's edges are strongly rounded. The netsuke from dwelling 42 (Sh8-42-4) is made of ivory quartz-sericite rock (Fig. 14, b). The dimensions are 34 × 17×12 mm, the diameter of the vertical hole is 3 mm. The lower edges of the key ring are pointed.
Netsuke from dwelling 148 (W-148-5) is carved from black obsidian (Fig. On both sides, the stone has oval depressions, in one of which there are traces of greenish glass (?). It is possible that all of them were previously filled with glass paste (inlay). Product dimensions 34×20×14 mm. The vertical hole is large-20 × 5 mm, in the form of an oval. The key ring from dwelling 42 (W9-42-6) is made of smoky rock crystal (Fig. 14, d). The dimensions are 30 × 20×18 mm, the diameter of the vertical hole is 4 mm. The key chain from dwelling 94 (Sh73-94-4) is made of black obsidian (Fig. 14, d). Dimensions 30 × 24×19 mm, vertical hole diameter 4 mm. One key ring in the form of a triangle was found on the Ananyevsky hillfort (A-82-3) (Fig. It is made of dark agate. Dimensions 32 × 24×17 mm, vertical hole diameter 3 mm.
15) were found at the Shaiginsky settlement in dwellings 249 (Sh-249-66) and 95 (Sh73-95-3). They are made of white quartz. The dimensions of the first are 19 × 22×16 mm, the second 18×17×17 mm. The diameter of the vertical holes is 3 mm.
A 20-sided keychain (Fig. 16) was found at the Kruglaya Sopka settlement in excavation 2 (KS87-R2). It is carved from transparent rock crystal. Dimensions 28 × 24×19 mm, vertical hole diameter 3 mm.
According to the presented collection of keychains of the netsuke type from medieval monuments of Primorye, it is clear that Jurchen masters in this art form have reached a very high level. They probably followed well-established traditions when they used small plastic art to depict mammals, birds, fish, people, and flowers, as well as geometric shapes. The size of the figures did not exceed certain standards: width in the range of 25-36 mm, height 15-24 mm. The color scheme of the material was taken into account. The wings of birds were marked with horizontal stripes, and the scales of fish-with a diamond-shaped grid. The images are very realistic, without schematics. Here you can already trace the characteristic forms and plots. Some researchers have linked animal-shaped netsuke charms with remnants of Jurchen totemism (Vasilyeva, 1976). Of course, in ancient times, any image had to carry a semantic load and, most likely, a religious and magical one. Obviously, keychains of the netsuke type were given the function of a talisman by means of an image. The characteristic style and certain standards that can be traced in the manufacture of these products suggest that the Jurchens by the XIII century. original direction in small plastic found its own forms.
List of literature
Vasilyeva, T. A., Survivals of totemism among the Jurchens, in Novye arkheologicheskie issledovaniya na Dalnem Vostoke SSSR (New Archaeological Research in the Far East of the USSR). Vladivostok: DVNC of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1976, pp. 147-153.
Vorob'ev M. V. Kul'tura zhurzheney i gosudarstva Jin (X v. - 1234 g.) [Culture of the Jurchens and the Jin State (X century-1234 g.)]. Moscow: Nauka, 1983, 367 p.
Khorev V. A., Brodyansky D. L. Taoist plots in the art of the Ananyevsky hillfort / / Pacific Archeology. Vladivostok, 2003, Issue 13: Antiquities of Primorye and Amur region in the context of Pacific archeology, pp. 186-192.
Shavkunov, E. V., On the purpose of Jurchen miniature sculptures made of stone, Izv. Sib. otd. AN SSSR, 1969, No. 6: Ser. Societies. Nauk: Issue 2, pp. 91-93.
Shavkunov E. V. Kul'tura zhurzheney-udige XII-XIII vv. i problema proiskhozhdeniya tungusskikh narodov Dalnego Vostoka [Culture of the Jurchen-Udige of the XII-XIII centuries and the problem of the origin of the Tungus peoples of the Far East].
The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 11.10.10.
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