The materials, a preliminary review of which is given in this publication, are correspondence between Mikhail Ivanovich Rostovtsev and the Belgian historian Franz Cumon (1868-1947). We are talking about 67 letters from Kymon written between 1900 and 1940, and 89 letters from Rostovtsev dating from 1897 to 1941 - a total of 156 letters, of which 4 letters from Kymon and the same number from Rostovtsev are published below. Since 4 authors from Russia and Italy participated in the publication, we note at once that the selection of Rostovtsev's letters was made by G. M. Bongard-Levin and Yu. N. Litvinenko, the letters of Kymon - K. Bonnet, and A. Marcone acted as a consultant to both parties.

All Rostovtsev's letters to Kymon are kept in two collections of the Belgian Academy in Rome (the Academy and Van Lehn funds 1), the history of which is devoted to the book by one of the authors of this article - K. Bonnet 2. If the study of the first fund (1908 letters) is completed and its result was the publication of the above-mentioned work, then the study of the second fund, Kymon's family (about 10,000 letters), continues to this day3 . Given that the family archive contains documents in chronological order, it was necessary to look through the entire file to find Rostovtsev's letters.

Almost all of Kymon's letters to Rostovtsev are in the latter's archive at Duke University (Durham, North Carolina), where G. M. Bongard - Levin and Yu. N .Litvinenko had the opportunity to work with them, obtain photocopies of them and permission to publish them. 4

1 We are extremely grateful to J. Amess, Director of the Belgian Academy in Rome, and J.-F. de Cumont, who have kindly consented to the publication of materials from these funds.

2 Bonnet С. La correspondance scientifique de Franz Cumont conservee a l'Academia Belgica de Rome. Bruxelles -Rome, 1997 (далее - Correspondance). See also a later publication on this topic: eadem. La correspondance scientifique de Franz Cumont: bilan et perspectives d' une recherche // Les syncretismes religieux dans Ie monde mediterraneen antique / Ed. C. Bonnet, A. Motte. Bruxelles - Rome, 1999. P. 43-58.

3 With the support of the Foundation for Basic Collective Research (Ministry of Higher Education of Belgium) and the Foundation for Scientific Research (French Community of Belgium).

4 Special Collections Department. William R. Perkins Library. Duke University. M.I. Rostovtzeff Papers. Correspondence Series. Correspondence: Individuals. Box 1. F. Cumont. 1927, Feb. - 1939, Oct.; Box 2. French. 1926, May - 1944, Jan. One letter from Kymon to Rostovtsev, probably dated 1927, was found by G. M. Bongard-Levin in the Archives of the Yale University Library (M. I. Rostovtzeff Papers. Manuscripts and Archives. Yale University Library. 1133 Series II. Box 23. Folder 101). Thanks to invitations from G. W. Bowersock (Princeton Institute for Advanced Study) and J. P. Morgan (Princeton Institute for Advanced Study). G. M. Bongard-Levin was given the opportunity to work with these archives in 1993 and 1996. Oates and R. Thompson (Yale University) for their assistance and support to G. M. Bongard-Levin and Yu. N.Litvinenko during their stay in America in 1998, when they completed the collection of archival materials related to Rostovtsev. This last trip to the United States was partially funded by the Paris House of Human Sciences, and we take this opportunity to express our gratitude to its administration in the person of M. Aymard and S. Colpard, as well as to the support of our research project by K. Lamberg-Karlowski (Harvard University) and D. Rose (New York). Finally, we cannot fail to mention G. Nioli and D. Razzola (Italian Institute for Africa and the Orient) and X. The German Archaeological Institute in Rome, whose invitations and hospitality allowed G. M. Bongard-Levin and Yu. N. Litvinenko to visit Rome in 1999 while working on the commentaries to the letters of Rostovtsev and Kymon. Yu. N. Litvinenko translated the French part of the text by K. Bonnet and A. Marcone. The letters of Kymon and Rostovtsev were translated from French by L. S. Bayun, S. V. Kulland and Yu. N. Litvinenko.

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One letter from Kymon to Rostovtsev, dating back to 1900, is kept in the Russian State Historical Archive in St. Petersburg .5

Even with a cursory acquaintance with the chronology of Rostovtsev and Kymon's correspondence, it becomes obvious that some part of their letters has either been lost or has not yet been found. 6 In our dossier, there are almost no letters related to the Russian period of Rostovtsev's life and the first years of his emigration (before moving to New Haven) .7 We can say with confidence that more or less constant contacts between the two scientists were established only in 1927-1928, 30 years after their first acquaintance. Similarly, we do not have an exhaustive answer to the question of why Cumont's last letters date from 1940 and Rostovtsev's from 1941. Of course, the Second World War, as well as Rostovtsev's nervous illness, which began in 1944, played a role here, and we can only regret the absence of any traces that would indicate a continuation of the war. There are 8 such contacts in the last years of the war and immediately after it . Probably, we will never know how and why Rostotsev and Kymon broke up with each other after so many years of friendship and correspondence.

Indeed, when you read these letters, you are convinced that the relationship between two prominent historians was close, both in scientific and human terms. Rostovtsev and Kymon did not hide their mutual sympathy and respect. The selection below allows you to first assess the scientific significance of their contacts. We have tried to select the letters so that the reader can get an idea of the most important aspects of the intellectual and scientific activities of both authors. This includes their participation in major archaeological discoveries in the Mediterranean and Middle East during the interwar period, Rostovtsev's writing of his great book on Hellenism, and Kumon's work on his major works on Eastern (primarily Syriac) religions. The extensive correspondence between the two scientists that we are investigating contains the most important information on the history of ancient studies in the 20s and 40s, and in this regard deserves further study. In addition, the letters of Rostovtsev and Kymon help to better understand the socio-political and cultural context that was the background of both authors 'scientific and creative research: Bolshevism, fascism, the" great depression", and World War II.

The correspondence between Rostovtsev and Kymon touches upon many topics and problems of ancient history and modernity, with which antiquity - in the lines of their letters-conducted its conversation: the" mystical Italy " of Rostovtsev and Kymon and the Italy of Mussolini, who revered Octavian Augustus, the death of the Hellenistic world and the regret of historians about the military tragedy unfolding before their eyes, the humanitas of antiquity. stoicism and the modern spiritual crisis, the pagan religions of antiquity and the paganism of modern times, whether we are talking about the Indian temples seen by Rostovtsev in 1937, or about Hitler, this, in the words of Kumon, "Mahdi of Berchtesgaden", who exchanged Christ for his bloodthirsty god9. But undoubtedly one of the main themes of their letters is the excavations of Dura Europos, conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres in 1928-1937. 10 Starting in 1926, when Kymon learned about Rostovtsev's plans to continue his research.

5 RGIA. F. 1041. On. 1. Ed. hr. 130. L. 1. A copy of this letter was kindly provided to us by V. Yu. Zuev.

6 It is possible that in some periods there was no correspondence between Rostovtsev and Kumon at all - their contacts, which is quite natural, could not have been constant for more than forty years of their acquaintance.

7 Our dossier contains six letters and postcards from Rostovtsev (dated October 21, 1897, March 28, 1898, November 24, 1900, March 16, 1911, July 1, 1920, and October 15, 1922) and only one letter from Cumon (dated December 21, 1900) that relate to the pre-emigrant and post-immigrant period. "doyelsky" periods of the Russian historian's life.

8 The correspondence between Rostovtsev and Cumont may have continued even after 1941, as indicated in the Duke Archives letter to Rostovtsev from A. Seyrig, dated November 7, 1944, in which a French archaeologist, concerned about Rostovtsev's deteriorating health, sends him greetings from R. Dussault and L. Robert and adds:"Monsieur Dussault has informed me, among other things, that Monsieur Cumont, who is in good health, has written to you."

9 See the letters published below, as well as Kymon's letters to Rostovtsev dated November 11 and December 16, 1938, August 26 and October 18, 1939, etc.; cf. Rostovtzeff M. 1. Mystic Italy. N.Y., 1927 (in the preface, Rostovtsev thanks Kymon, this "greatest living specialist in history ancient religion", who took the trouble to read the handwritten chapters of the book - p. XIV-XV).

10 For the history of the Doura-Europos excavations in 1928-1937, see Hopkins C. The Discovery of Doura-Europos. New Haven-London, 1979. On the place and role of Rostovtsev in these excavations, see Mateson, S. M. I. Rostovtsev, and others.

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The excavations of the Hellenistic-Parthian-Roman city on the Euphrates, first undertaken by Kymon in 1922-192311, and until the 1940s Dura-Europos remained the focus of both researchers, who carried out the general scientific management of the excavations and were their "brilliant interpreters" 12 . It was this monument that brought Rostovtsev and Kymon closer together, becoming the point of intersection of the largely similar destinies of two scientists so different in their views and character - "Mongol" and "Syrian", as Rostovtsev jokingly called himself and his friend 13. We think that this aspect of Rostovtsev and Kymon's correspondence should be of particular interest to modern researchers of Dura- Europos 14 - after all, for them archival materials related to the activities of the Yale expedition (oni. by the way, not all of them have been published yet), and they still have not lost their relevance 15 . We hope that the publication of Rostovtsev's and Kymon's letters will open another page in the history of the Dura-Europos excavation, which is still, as F. Millar rightly noted, "one of the most amazing and impressive chapters in the history of world archaeology." 16

The value of these 156 letters is such that they should be published in their entirety. This project is currently being developed by the authors of this preliminary publication , 17 the expediency of which is determined by the desire to familiarize specialists with its materials as soon as possible, which, as it seems to us, give a general idea of the entire collection of letters, their contents.

Dura-Europos / / VDI. 1992. N 4. pp. 130-139; Millar F. M. I. Rostovtsev and his role in the management of excavations in Dura-Europos / / VDI. 1996. N 3. pp. 184-187.

11 See Kumon's letters of October 26 and 27, 1926, from which we learn, among other things, that Rostovtsev originally planned to combine the Dura-Europos expedition with another proposed Yale University archaeological mission to Vark (Uruk). For the prehistory of the American-French excavations of Dura-Europos, see Breasted J. N. Oriental Forerunners of Byzantine Painting: First-Century Wall Paintings from the Fortress of Dura on the Middle Euphrates. Chicago, 1924: Сumont F. Fouilles de Doura-Europos. P., 1926; Velud Ch. Histoire des recherches b Doura-Europos. Contexte historique regional des fouilles de Doura entre les deux Guerres mondiales / / Syria. 1988. 65. P. 363-382; Scythian novel / Under the general editorship of G. M. Bongard-Levin. Moscow, 1997. pp. 544-545; Bongard-Levin G. Un Scythe russe sur les-rives de la Seine //CRAI. 1998. P. 874-876.

12 While presenting Rostovtsev's generalizing book on Dura-Europos ("Dura-Europos and Its Art") at the French Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, Cumont called its author "a spiritual leader and a brilliant interpreter" of the Yale excavations (see CRAI. 1938. pp. 530-531), but we believe that this definition is no less true. in relation to Kymon himself - one of the discoverers and first researchers of the monument.

13 On the print of his article "The Great World of Middle Asia and His Exploits" (published in 1932 in Artibus Asiae), presented to Cumont and stored in the archives of the Belgian Academy in Rome, Rostovtsev wrote a greeting: Mongolus Syria salutem optimum dat. For information on Kymon's life, views, and academic work, see Correspondence. P. 1-67. Rostovtsev's life and work are covered in detail in the already mentioned collective monograph "The Scythian Novel".

14 Since 1986, a Franco-Syrian mission has been working in Dura Europos under the leadership of P. Lerish and A. Mahmoud, whose goal is to further study the monument, study and preserve previously excavated sites, and revise the results of previous excavations of the city; see the publications of the reports of this archaeological mission in the journal "Syria" for 1986, 1988 and 1992. (Doura-Europos Etudes I-1986, II-1988, III-1990; further respectively-DEE I, II, III), and also Doura-Europos Etudes IV, 1991-1993 / Ed. P. Leriche, M. Gelin. Beyrouth, 1997 (hereinafter referred to as DEE IV). For an overview of the latest Dura-Europos excavations, see Koshelenko G. A., Gaiboa V. A. Dura-Europos after M. I. Rostovtsev / / VDI. 1999. N 3. pp. 221-232.

15 The problem of studying the archives of the American-French expedition to Dura-Europos is given a special heading in the reports of the Franco-Syrian mission, see Matheson S. B. The Tenth Season at Dura-Europos, 1936-1937 / / Syria. 1992. 69 (=DEE III). P. 121-140; Gelin М. Les fouilles anciennes de Doura-Europos et leur contexte: documents d' archives conserves dans les institutions francaises et temoignages // DEE IV. P. 229- 244; Yon J.-B. Les conditions de travail de la mission americano-francaise a Doura-Europos a travers les archives de l' Universite de Yale // DEE IV. P. 245-255; ср. Leriche P. Materiaux pour une reflexion renouvelee sur les sanctuaires de Doura-Europos // Topoi. 1997. 7. P. 904-905. A similar study of the archives associated with the Dura-Europos excavations in 1928-1937 is carried out by a group of scientists led by G. M. Bongard-Levin; see the publications of Rostovtsev's letters to K. Hopkins, J. R. Angell, W. L. Cross, and C. B. Wells in: The Scythian Novel, pp. 530-568.

16 Miliar F. Dura-Europos under Parthian Rule // Das Partherreich und seine Zeugnisse / Hrsgb. J. Wiesehofer. Stuttgart, 1998. P. 473.

17 Several of Rostovtsev's letters to Kymon have already been published by K. Bonnet (Correspondence. p. 42631); for a brief mention of the correspondence between Rostovtsev and Kymon, see the Scythian Novel, pp. 533-534.

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interest and meaning. Our colleagues ' assessments and comments on this publication would also allow us to adjust our further work on project 18 .

The letters are accompanied by comments in the form of page-by-page notes concerning the mentioned characters, publications, and facts. Our comments, while in no way intended to be exhaustive, are intended to help the reader understand who or what is being discussed in each particular case. The correspondence between Rostovtsev and Kymon undoubtedly requires more extensive historiographical explanations and comments left for the final edition, which, we hope, will help to better understand and evaluate the place and role of this epistolary collection in the history of European and American culture.

All 8 letters listed here are published for the first time and in chronological order, covering the period from 1927 to 1939. *

* * *

Kymon's letter to Rostovtsev

Paris, February 14, 1927

My dear friend,

This is not a very good typographic impression of the promised review of your beautiful book. The review will be published in the next issue of Revue bel. de phil. et d'hist., but I don't want to delay reporting it 19 .

I'm going to send you, via Geuthner, my big book on Dura, which will soon be published on 20 . You'll do me a favor if you write a few words about her in one of the American magazines. At the same time, you will have the opportunity to comment on the need to continue excavation 21 . Dussault 22 keeps me updated on his negotiations with the Syrians 23.

18 In addition to the Russian version of the publication, we have prepared an expanded French version (including 13 letters from Cumont and 9 letters from Rostovtsev) for the Bulletin de l'Institut Historique Beige de Rome. The transcription of the letters (all of them handwritten and written in French) in the original language is preserved in full, with the exception of only those places where the authors make mistakes in the placement of accents or use little-used abbreviations, corrected and restored by us. Rostovtsev's French, of course, is left unchanged, hence its rough syllable, which is also noticeable in the Russian translation. We also tried to preserve the author's spelling, punctuation, and underscores of individual words and expressions.

* The publication was supported by the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation as part of the project 98-01-00066: "Academician M. I. Rostovtsev and the Hellenistic-Roman East (new archival materials)".

19 This is Cumont's review of Rostovtsev's Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (Oxf., 1926), published in the Revue beige de philologie et d'histoire (1926. 5 p.1074-1078). In particular, it said: "Here is a book that will become a milestone in the history of ancient studies." Cumont wrote about the author's "desperate courage", as well as about the too strong influence of the Russian revolution on Rastov's model of Roman history. It should be noted that in his review, Kumon considered it necessary to emphasize the important role of the intellectual factor in the historical process.

20 Cumont. Fouilles... This two-volume work (volume 1-text, volume 2 - illustrations) was published by R. Geuthner publishing house,

21 Rostovtsev's review of Kymon's book was published in: American Historical Review. 1927. 32. P. 836-841. It was in it that Rostovtsev first raised the question of the need to continue the excavations of Dura-Europos.

22 Rene Dussaud (1868-1956) - a major French archaeologist-orientalist, from 1910 to 1935 he was the curator of the Department of Oriental Antiquities of the Louvre, participated in the creation of the magazine "Syria" and the Service of Antiquities of Syria and Lebanon (under the auspices of France), played an important role in organizing archaeological expeditions in Tanis, Bybla, Ugarit, Tello, Dura and Apamee; for more information, see Correspondence. P. 180-181.

23 The Wanlin Foundation holds several letters from R. Dussault to Cumont (dated December 5 and 28, 1926, and February 27, 1927), which relate these negotiations. For a preliminary review of the correspondence between R. Dussaud and Cumont, see Bonnet C. Les lettres de Rene Dussaud a Franz Cumont conservees a l'Academia Belgica de Rome / Festschrift fur Oswald Loretz. Munster, 1998. P. 109-125.

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the demands are absurd, they should think that if they don't agree to half, they won't get anything at all. However, in the East, it is always possible to achieve a streamlined interpretation of the terms of the contract, and the word doubles could be widely understood. If you are not satisfied with this, Virollo will resume negotiations with the authorities in Aleppo on 24, but this will lead to another delay on 25 . It's hard to stir the motionless East 26 .

My compliments to Mrs. Rostovtseva.

Sincerely yours, Franz Cumont

I'm heading back to Rome 27 at the end of this month.

2. Rostovtsev's letter to Kymon

New Haven [1928]

Dear friend!

I just got back to New Haven 28 and started teaching again, which I'm pretty tired of and doesn't interest me much, but I have to earn a living. Thank you for your letter and manuscript 29 . We decided to publish the Dura 30 excavation materials annually . The first volume will include: 1) preface of prez [ident]

24 Charles Virolleaud (1879-1968) was Professor of the Antiquities Service of Syria and Lebanon from 1920 to 1929, later Professor at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, a specialist in semitology; for more information, see Correspondence. pp. 466-467.

25 Similar problems concerning the Belgian excavations of Apamea are mentioned in another letter from Cumont, see letter No. 3 below; cf. Correspondence. pp. 183-184, which contains a letter from R. Dussault discussing the terms of the agreement with the Governments of Syria and Lebanon on the division of finds.

26 "Immotus Oriens" in the original text.

27 A Belgian by birth, Cumont left Belgium in 1914 and settled in Paris and Rome, for more information, see Correspondence. P. 24, 27-28. Further research by the Wanglen Foundation will help clarify the chronology and circumstances that contributed to this decision of Kymon.

28 In the spring of 1928, Rostovtsev made a three-month trip to Syria, Jordan, and Palestine, which resulted in a series of articles and a book about" caravan cities " (see Rostovtsev, M.). About the Middle East. Karavannye goroda Araby, Transjordanii i Syrii [Caravan cities of Arabia, Transjordan and Syria] / / NW. 1930. 41-44 [reprinted in the same magazine as a separate brochure: Rostovtsev M.]. About the Middle East. Paris, 1931]; Rostovtzeff M. Caravan Cities. Oxf., 1932). From the preface to the work "On the Middle East" (p. 5), we learn that Rostovtsev initiated American excavations not only in Dura Europos, but also in Geras (modern Jerash in Jordan) - in his words, "two of the most interesting caravan cities in the Middle East" (about the Yale archaeological mission in Jerash which took place almost simultaneously with the Dura expedition, see Gerasa. City of Decapolis / Ed. by S. N. Kraeling. New Haven, 1938). The purpose of Rostovtsev's trip was to get acquainted with these cities and start excavations in Dura, where he arrived together with Kymon and A. Seyrig on April 14, 1928 (excavations were conducted from April 13 to May 6). In the summer of 1928, Rostovtsev was in Europe (in July, he was in Oxford, where he worked ," like Sisyphus", on R. Tebt. 703, as reported in two of his letters to Cumont dated July 27 and 31, 1928). By the beginning of the school year, Rostovtsev returned to Yale - his letter to Cumont was most likely written in late September or early October 1928, as indicated by two letters to Rostovtsev from Cumont dated September 16 and 18 October 1928

29 These are two notes written by Kymon for the first volume of the Preliminary Report, concerning the so-called "Nemesis relief" and the incense altar, which were found during the first season of excavations at Dura. See The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Preliminary Report of the First Season of Work / Ed. P.V.C. Baur, M.I. Rostovtzeff. New Haven, 1929 (далее - Preliminary Report I). P. 65-71. For the reprint of Nemesis Relief, see Downey S. B. The Stone and Plaster Sculpture. Los Angeles, 1977 (= The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Final Report III. Pt. I. Fasc. 2). P. 29-31. PI. IV. 9; cf. p. 191-192.

30 A total of 10 volumes of "Preliminary Reports" (published from 1929 to 1952) and 13 volumes of "Final Reports" (published from 1943 to 1977) were published. The report for the last, tenth, excavation season was never published (see Matheson. Op. cit. p. 121-140), and the publication of the "Final Reports"cannot be considered complete. While the first four volumes of "Preliminary Reports" were published fairly quickly, later-as the excavations continued and the material accumulated, as well as due to technical and financial difficulties-the operational publication of" Preliminary Reports " became more widespread.

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Angella 31; 2) an essay on the tasks of the excavation and the organization of the expedition; 3) the general report of Pillet 32; 4) my article on the inscriptions; 5) Your two notes that you sent; 6) Torrey's article 33 on the Palmyra inscriptions. The volumes will be published under the title: Preliminary Reports on the Excavations of Dura-Europos. I do not yet have the text of Pillet's report, only his drawings, none of which correspond to his excavations of the citadel.

Let me now make a request to you. You are well aware that in Rome, outside the Port Gate, inscriptions were discovered at one time that testify to the existence of a sanctuary of the Palmyra gods in this place .34 Recently, Cañas republished these inscriptions: I. Gr. I, 41 and sl. 35 They mention a certain T. Aurelius Heliodorus, possibly some rich merchant from Palmyra. Two inscriptions in Greek and Palmyra, the rest in Greek and Latin, one inscription with the image of Astarte. I am very interested in this group, as one of the inscriptions dates from 235 BC-three years earlier than the Malohas 36 inscription . Torrey is also interested in it, especially from the point of view of paleography. So, could you tell me what literature is available about these inscriptions, about the place of their discovery and its ruins, and also send me photos of these inscriptions? I do not know if they were published well 37 . Finally, could Paribeni 38 be interested in conducting excavations at this site? Maybe there will be more inscriptions. Isn't it interesting to find such a sanctuary in Rome, and even dating back to the time when Palmyra began the struggle to regain its political independence? Was it not Elagabalus, the heroism of the Palmyrians for the construction of their sanctuary in Rome?

A few words about the altar with images 39 . Don't you think that this is not an altar of glory, but an altar from the imperial palace, which you first noticed (Die

impossible. The war-induced significant slowdown in the development of reports since the early 1940s could not but worry Rostovtsev (the situation was aggravated by his progressive illness), as evidenced by his later letters to C. B. Wells (see Scythian Novel, pp. 563-570).

31 James Rowland Angell (1869-1949), President of Yale University from 1921-1937, was a major contributor to the organization and conduct of the Dura Europos excavations (the seventh and eighth volumes of Preliminary Reports are dedicated to him in one issue). For more information about him and Rostovtsev's correspondence with him, see the Scythian Novel, pp. 530-547.

32 Maurice Pillet (1881-1964), French archaeologist and architect, was field director of the Dura expedition from 1928 to 1931 (before that he worked in Egypt); for more information, see Hopkins. Op. cit. P. 26-34, 36-40, 50-53, 56-61; Gelin. Op. cit. P. 229-244; Yon. Op. cit. P. 245-255.

33 Charles Cutler Torrey (1863-1956) - Professor and head of the Department of Semitic Languages at Yale University, specialist in the Aramaic language and researcher of the Koran. In the excavation reports, Dura was responsible for publishing Semitic inscriptions. In particular, in the first volume of the report, he published two Palmyra inscriptions (Preliminary Report I. P. 61-64).

34 The Palmyra community existed in Rome in the second and third centuries, and its members worshipped the cult of Dea Syria, to which the sanctuary mentioned in the inscriptions was dedicated, located near the Janiculum on the right bank of the Tiber (modern Trastevere district). See from recent publications on this topic: Equini Schneider E. II santuario di Bel e delle divinita di Palmira. Comunita e tradizioni religiose dei palmireni a Roma // Dialoghi di archeologia. 1987. 5. 1. P. 69-85; Mocchegiani Carpano С. L'area del "santuario siriaco del Gianicolo": problemi archeologici e storico- religiosi. Roma, 1982.

35 Inscriptiones Graecae ad res romanas pertinentes. 1 /Ed. R. Cagnat, J. Toutain, P. Jouguet. P., 1911. N 43-46. A new edition of the Palmyra inscriptions from Rome was undertaken by L. Moretti: Moretti L. Inscriptiones Grecae Urbis Romae. I. Roma, 1968 (see, in particular, N 117, 118).

36 This refers to the inscription No. 45 in the edition of R. Kanya. As for the inscription found in Dura in 1928 in Greek and Palmyra-a dedication to the Nemesis of a certain Palmyran noble (merchant?) In the case of Julius Aurelius Malochas, son of Sudai (see Preliminary Report I. P. 59, 62, 65 ff. PI. IV./; Comte Du Mesnil du Buisson R. Inventaire des Inscriptions palmyreniennes de Doura-Europos. P., 1939. N 12), it is dated not 235, but 228/29 and, consequently, the date is not 235, but 228/29., older than the Palmyra inscription from Rome by at least 6 years.

37 In letters to Rostovtsev dated October 21 and December 28, 1928, Cumont cited the literature known to him about the Roman sanctuary of the " Palmyra gods "and the inscriptions derived from it, noting in passing that"this discovery is so old that none of the Roman archaeologists remember it."

38 Roberto Paribeni (1876-1956)-Italian archaeologist and historian of antiquity, specialist in the history of contacts between Italy and the Eastern Mediterranean in ancient times. At the time under review, he was inspector of the museums of Rome and Naples, head of the Antiquities Service of Rome and Latium. Later academician, Professor at the Catholic University of Milan and President of the Institute of Archaeology and Art History.

39 Found by Rostovtsev himself in the spring of 1928 during the first season of excavations in one of the towers of the so-called "Palmyra" gate. First published in Preliminary Report I. P. 20-21,45. PI. V. A, B, C, D.

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Myst. d. М., 3 Aufl., p. 84; Drexel, Phil. Woch., 1926, p. 152; Otto; Ensslin, Neue Jahrb., 4, 1928, p. 404) 40 ? What do we know about the images on the altar? The eagle could be a symbol of an emperor or an empire. Was there not an altar in the sacrarium cohortis near the vexillum that never faded away - a copy of the altar from the palace? And why can't the crater with the bird be compared to the vase and plant in it in the murals from the sanctuary in Dura 41 ? This altar convinces me that the tower was a military sanctuary-the official sanctuary of the Dura garrison. The standard with the crescent and sphere was, like the Babylonian standards, one of the sacred objects, a symbol of the solar deities .42

And more. You write that your book won't be released until after Christmas (or later?). Could you send me a copy with good pages as soon as it's published? Closer to Christmas, I will start teaching my students about Eastern religions, and I will need your book very much .43

'Ayadnt Tuxni, Apamea 44 ! When talking to the President of the Republic, I got the impression that if everything goes well, we will be able to work in Dura for 5 years! Everything will depend on the case and ... Pillet. See you soon. G [ospozha] R [ostovtseva] sends you his warmest regards.

Devoted to you M. Rostovtsev

George Lincoln 46 I see every day. He sends you a friendly greeting. Would you like your notes to be published in French, or can we translate them? Regarding Berlin and the Institute's meeting. Why don't you tell us about Dura? Please do it. Always consider Dura your monument - it is such a monument.

40 See Cumont F. Die Mysterien des Mithra. Lpz-B., 1923; Drexel F. Zum Kaiserlichen Hofzeremoniell // Philologische Wochenschrift. 1926. S. 157-160; Otto W. Zum Hofzeremoniell des Hellenismus; Ensslin W. Die weltgeschichte Bedeutung der Kampfe zwischen Rom und Persien // Neue Jahrbiicher flir Paedagogik. 1928. S. 399-415.

41 From Rostovtsev's letter, it is not entirely clear which frescoes are in question. Perhaps this refers to the "Orthonobase cornice" published by Cumont; see Cumont. Fouilles ... p. 226 ss. PI. LXXXVI./; LXXXVII.

42 . Rostovtsev's interpretation of this altar differs from that of the monument proposed by Kymon and published in the first volume of the Preliminary Report (pp. 45-46, cf. pp. 68-71). In his later article (Vexillum and Victory // JRS. 1942. 32. P. 101-103. PI. VI. 2, 3), Rostovtsev again expressed disagreement with Cumont's opinion that the altar depicts a scene of the Roman imperial cult and suggested that it contains an image of the sanctuary of the "solar triad" and the religious banner of Labarum. See also Downey. The Stone and Plaster Sculpture. P. 178-180: according to the researcher, the altar depicts in the form of a standard the Syrian goddess Atargatis, to whom the altar was dedicated.

43 Cumont F. Les religions orientates dans Ie paganisme remain. P., 1929-4th reprint of lectures that Cumont gave at the College de France in 1905. According to modern researchers, Rostovtsev's conclusions about the syncretic nature of Dura religious cults are based on this classic work of Kymon and today need serious revision (see, for example, Dirven L. The Palmyrenes of Dura- Europos. A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria. Leiden, 1999. P. XVII ff.).

44 " Good day, Apamea!" In 1928, the Belgian National Foundation for Scientific Research, established in 1927 on the initiative of Cumont, allocated money for the excavation of Apamein-Oronteh in Northern Syria, where the first explorations were carried out at the same time. Systematic excavations of Apamea were conducted from 1930 to 1938 under the direction of the Belgian archaeologist Fr. Mayence and A. Lacoste (the excavation committee included A. Pirenne, R. Dussault and F. Cumont). After the war, the Belgian archaeological mission resumed excavations of Apamea, which had been conducted there since 1965 under the direction of J. Balti.

45 I.e. with J. R. Angell is president of Yale University.

46 George Lincoln Hendrickson (1865-1963) was a long-time friend of Cumont, whom he met while studying at the University of Bonn in 1888-1889. Subsequently, they maintained contact with each other for a long time. Cumont dedicated it to J. R. R. Tolkien. Hendrickson wrote his book "After Life in Roman Paganism "(New Haven, 1922), based on lectures given in 1921 at Yale University, where he was invited by J. R. R. Tolkien. Hendrickson, who taught Latin there, and in 1925-1933 headed the Classical Department of the university and, thus, was a colleague of Rostovtsev. Not surprisingly, his name often appears in the correspondence between Kumon and Rostovtsev, where he is usually referred to as "George Lincoln". For more information about him and his relationship with Rostovtsev, see Van Staden N. Rostovtzeff a Yale / / Rostovtzeff e l'Italia / Ed. A. Marcone. Napoli, 1999. P. 63-95.

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I won't be able to come in April, but I would very much like the word 47 to be mentioned about Dura . Show them some good shots.

3. Kymon's letter to Rostovtsev

Rome, December 9, 1929

Dear friend!

I received your letter, which missed my 48 . In my letter, I sent you some minor comments on the parchment and asked you to clarify your agreement on Salihiyah with the V [erkhov] Commissariat .49 Here are some other considerations that I will give you with all possible reservations. So little is known about the Parthian administration that any hypothesis will be unreliable. I hope that you will find many more papyri in Dura, and they will be able to complement each other 50 . At this point, you have extracted from the mortgage text really everything that can be found here .

I received a letter from Pillet, and you probably did too. The season promises to be successful. The discovery of the dedication to Atargatis 52 alongside the earlier dedications to Artemis and Nanaia proves that all three goddesses - Greek, Syrian, and Babylonian - were identified, and this is not surprising. According to Isis of Harak, down the Euphrates from Dur, in Bezeshan, was the sanctuary of Atargatis .53 Her cult was, apparently,

47 As a result, Rostovtsev spoke at a meeting of the German Archaeological Institute in Berlin on July 2, 1929, see Archalogische Gesellschaft zu Berlin. Sitzung am 2. Juli 1929 // Jahrbuch de.s Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, Archaologischer Anzeiger. 1929. 3. 4. S. 431-438. On his unwillingness to represent Dura at this meeting, Kymon informed Rostovtsev in his letters dated September 16 and October 21, 1928. To the proposal of the scientific secretary G. Rodenwaldt to take part in the meeting on the occasion of the centenary of the institute, Kymon refused and explained it by saying that Dura "no longer belongs to him", that "the exclusive right to make public the received documents". the results belong to Yale" and therefore he "cannot and does not want to speak publicly on this issue." However, a few lines below in the same letter dated September 16, Kymon, asking Rostovtsev's opinion on the results of the first season in Dura, notes:: "I am somewhat responsible for the campaign launched by your university, and I wish for both science and myself that it will be very effective." Kymon also mentions his responsibility for choosing Dura as an archaeological site by Yale University in subsequent letters to Rostovtsev (see, for example, his letter of February 17, 1932).

48 This refers to Cumont's letter of 11 November 1929, which deals with the text of the loan agreement, which has come down on a parchment found in Dura; Cumont spoke about this discovery at the Academy on 11 October and 8 November 1929 (see CRAI. 1929, pp. 270-272, 283-284).

49 For Rostovtsev's negotiations, see Gelin. Op. cit. p. 229 ss.

50 During the excavations of Dura in 1922-1923. Cumont discovered several dozen parchments that were published in the book: Cumont. Fouilles... P. 281-337. PI. CIV-CX. It is not surprising that Cumon predicted new discoveries of these documents and later often turned in his letters to the topic of papyri and parchments from Dura. Rostovtsev showed no less interest in these finds, especially singling them out from the mass of others. So, summing up the results of 7 years of work in Dura, Rostovtsev wrote that the finds of papyri and parchments make the excavations of this city unique, since "this is the only place outside of Egypt where written documents in different languages were found" (see Scythian Novel, pp. 546-547). A model edition of 109 papyri and 45 parchments from Dura was prepared and published by Rostovtsev's students; see The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Final Report V. Pt. I. The Parchments and Papyri / Ed. C.B. Welles, R.O. Fink, J.F. Gilliam. New Haven, 1959 (hereinafter-P. Dura). Currently, a number of other places in the Near East are known from which papyri originate, see Cotton N. M., Cockle W. E. H., Millar F. G. V. The Papyrology of the Near East: a Survey / / JRS. 1995. 85. P. 214-235 -the total list of these papyri now includes over 600 documents.

51 См. Rostovtzeff М., Welles C.B. A Parchment Contract of Loan from Dura-Europos on the Euphrates // YCS. 1931. 2. P. 1-78; The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Preliminary Report of the Second Season of Work / Ed. P.V.C. Baur, M.I. Rostovtzeff. New Haven, 1931. P. 201-216. PI. XXVIII.

52 Published in the third volume of the Preliminary Report, see The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Preliminary Report of the Third Season of Work / Ed. P.V.C. Baur, M.I. Rostovtzeff, A.R. Bellinger. New Haven, 1932 (далее - Preliminary Report III). P. 436.

53 GGM I. P. 249. Rostovtsev's interest in Isidor Haraksky's information is evidenced by one of his letters to A. Stein (dated October 4, 1938, see Scythian Novel, p. 569), which, in particular, says:: "Personally

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It was distributed by the Palmyrians (cf. Doura-Europos, p. 98-54) along the entire caravan route; Pillet says that he found a bas-relief of Atargatis and Adad near the pedestal on which the inscription is inscribed .55 It seems that in the sanctuary there was a special chapel for the worship of the Palmyra goddess.

We have not yet signed a contract for Apamea 56 , but we have agreed in principle. However, as Mayens 57 told me, all these delays made it impossible to get the material in time to start excavation in the spring. So I'll just have to accept that I won't make it to Dura in March. As soon as I understand that the nadp[isei] Academy cannot offer you anything new (I have already asked Dussault), I will pass on the contents of your letter to Carco 58 and ask him to contact you directly. If he is interested in Dura, of course, he will help you, but I do not know if he can get a large enough vacation to spend a month in Salihiya. You will negotiate with them.

It would be a great pity if your business, which started so well, was interrupted due to lack of funding. I do not know Mr. Capps 59, but I will write to him nevertheless about the significant interest of your research.

I have sent to the Revue historique a copy of my article on the rescript of August 60 . I stick to this title and still think it is accurate, although I have come up with an idea for a new interpretation that would make this document extremely interesting. If Eisler 61 knew about it, he would immediately write a huge book in defense of his hypothesis. The last words, which mention only the transfer of a certain body, may refer to a specific case that the procurator of Judea referred to the emperor for consideration. Let us assume that Diatauia Kaloapos is used here in a general sense as "an imperial decree" (cf., e.g., [imer], Acts II. See XVII, 7: deauaetwv Kaloapos"), and Tiberius could have been Caesar. But then the transfer of the body is nothing more than the abduction mentioned in Matthew 28: 13, and our rescript from Nazareth is a response to Pilate's report. I do not take the liberty of supporting this interpretation, although I do give it here . I have absolutely no desire for advertising!

Please send my greetings to Mrs. Rostovtseva.

My cordially devoted Friend Fr. Kymon

for me, the most interesting thing is the topographical survey of the area along the Middle Euphrates and the localization of "forts", temples and settlements, which Isidore Haraksky points out in his "Parthian sites"... His information is supplemented by many geographical names mentioned in the inscriptions and parchments of Dura."

54 Cumont. Fouilles...

55 For this bas-relief, see Preliminary Report III. P. 100-107. PI. XIV.

56 The signing of the agreement on the transfer of Apamea to the Belgian archaeological mission was preceded by lengthy negotiations, numerous references to which are contained in letters to F. Cumont by R. Dussault and A. Seyrig; see Correspondence. pp. 182-185, 439-442. A copy of this agreement is kept in the Cumont archive at the Belgian Academy in Rome.

57 Fernand Mayence (1879-1959)was a Belgian archaeologist who conducted excavations in Apamea, see Correspondence. P. 289-314 (with a bibliography), as well as the catalog of the exhibition dedicated to him in Louvain-la-Neuve:

Entre Grece et Syrie. Fernand Mayence (1879-1959). Louvain-la-Neuve, 1999.

58 This is the case of the famous French historian Jerome Carcopineau (1881-1970), for whom see Correspondence. pp. 134-137. The question of J. Carcopineau's possible participation in the excavations of Dura was repeatedly raised in letters to him by Rostovtsev and Cumont (now stored at the French Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres).

59 Edward Capps (1866-1950) - Professor at Princeton University.

60 См. Cumont F. Un rescrit imperial sur la violation de sepulture // RH. 1930. 166. P. 241-266; idem. Une inscription de Nazareth // CRAI. 1929. P. 237.

61 Robert Eisler (1882-1949) - historian, specialist on Josephus, and author of a series of works on the history of ancient religion (religious mysteries, ancient religion, and Christianity), astrology, and cosmology. Cumont probably cites him as an example of a prolific author, although in reality R. Eisler's scientific legacy is not so huge.

62 In his reply letter to Cumon dated December 30 1929 Rostovtsev gave the following curious assessment of this hypothesis: "Your idea about the decree of Augustus or Tiberius deserves attention, if we recognize that the work of Christ was in fact a significant event in the life of Jerusalem, and not one of its many and insignificant episodes."

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4. Rostovtsev's letter to Kymon

New Haven February 21, 1936

Dear friend!

I am sending you a separate package of Pearson 63's report on Mithraeum, its plans and photographs. At the same time, I send my notes on the history of this monument 64 . If I remember correctly, I gave you Pearson's preliminary report, plan, and reconstruction. If you don't need them anymore, can you send them back to me? I need them to find out some of the details missing from Pearson's final report.

The news from Dura is wonderful. Three important discoveries were made. I don't know if Brown 65 or Dumesnil 66 send you their monthly reports. Anyway, I'll repeat the contents of Brown's last two reports. 1) I have already written to you about the discovery of another praetorium 67 in s [evero] - in the [ostochnaya] part of the city, and about the paint inscriptions from this praetorium ("tragedians" and "actors", slaves of Pompeian, dux ripae, namesakes of Pompeian) of St. John the Baptist. Hieronymus 68).

63 Henri Finck Pearson (1906-1964) - architect and artist, graduate of the University of Michigan School of Architecture, fellow of the Yale School of Fine Arts, since 1931 participated in the excavations of Dura, where he studied architectural monuments (synagogue, mithraeum, etc.). In 1935, he drew up an overall plan of the city, based on the characteristic of Hellenistic urban planning "hippodamus" scheme (the regular layout of Dura was repeatedly pointed out in their letters and publications by Kymon and Rostovtsev) and modified in 1936-1937 with the reconstruction of F. Brown and A. G. Detweiler. Rostovtsev's letter refers to the preparation of the next volume of the "Preliminary Report" for the 7th and 8th seasons of excavations. In this volume, G. Pearson has a section on the architecture and history of Mithraeum, see The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Preliminary Report of the Seventh-Eighth Seasons of Work / Ed. M.I. Rostovtzeff, F. Brown, C.B. Welles. New Haven, 1939 (далее - Preliminary Report VII-VIII). P. 62-77, 101-104.

64 The mitreum was discovered by R. Dumenil in February 1934, and Rostovtsev and Kymon took part in its excavations. For their reports on this sensational discovery (the first sanctuary of Mithras in the East with well-preserved frescoes), see CRAI. 1934. p. 90-111 (Cumont) and Rom. Mitt. 1934. 49. P. 180-207 (Rostovtsev). They also prepared the preliminary publication of the mitreum in Preliminary Report VII-VIII. pp. 62-134.

65 Frank Edward Brown (1908-1988) - an antiquarian archaeologist, a student of Rostovtsev at Yale, took an active part in the excavations of Dura as an assistant director of the expedition (from the fall of 1932), and with the departure of K. Hopkins to the University of Michigan became the field director of the expedition and led the excavations from 1935 to 1937. Under his leadership, the strategy and tasks of excavations changed significantly: from the study of individual most interesting monuments, they moved on to the study of the stratigraphy of the city (especially its earliest layers) and its historical and archaeological evolution as a whole. In the future, f. Brown is a professor at Yale University and director of the American Academy in Rome. О нем см. Eius Virtutis Studiosi: Classical and Postclassical Studies in Memory of Frank Edward Brown / Ed. R.T. Scott, A.R. Scott. Washington, 1993.

66 Robert Du Mesnil du Buisson (1895-1980), French archaeologist and semitologist, participated in the excavations of Dura from 1932 to 1937 as deputy director of the expedition.

67 Since the Roman praetorium (E 7 on the general plan of the city) was opened as early as 1931-1932, the " second praetorium "(X 3/5 on the city plan) was called the" quarter dux ripae", or"palace of the chief". Excavations of the palace were conducted by R. Dumenil in 1935-1936 (see his report in CRAI. 1936. pp. 145-147). Materials from these excavations were processed by Rostovtsev, A. G. Detweiler, F. E. Brown, C. B. Wells, and E. Perkins and published in The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Preliminary Report of the Ninth Season of Work. Pt III / Ed. M.I. Rostovtzeff, A.R. Bellinger, F. Brown, C.B. Welles. New Haven, 1952 (hereinafter referred to as Preliminary Report IX, 3; the first and second parts of this report were published in New Haven in 1944 and 1946, respectively, and are cited below as Preliminary Report IX, 1 and Preliminary Report IX, 2). P. 1-96. For the Roman camp at Dura, which included the praetorium proper, the commander's house, the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum headquarters, barracks, amphitheater, and baths, see Ibid. pp. 69-96. From the latest research on this topic, we note: Pollard N. The Roman Army as "Total Institution" in the Near East? Dura-Europos as a Case Study // The Roman Army in the East / Ed. D.L. Kennedy. Ann Arbor, 1996. P. 211- 227.

68 This refers to the dipinti inscriptions No. 945-948 (published by M. I. Rostovtsev and C. B. Wells in Preliminary Report IX, 3. pp. 27-57) originating in room No. 7 of the palace, which mention TpaywSol and unokritai, actors who acted out Dionysian scenes. Rather, they were not slaves, but freedmen of Domitius Pompeianus, "chief of the coast guard" and probably the owner of the palace; see Ibid. P. 36-40;

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further excavations of this praetorium revealed two dedications of junior officers to Jupiter Dolichenus: one Latin, 211 AD, the other Greek, 251-252 AD. I, like Brown, believe that these inscriptions are connected with the temple of Jupiter Dolichenus. Do you remember that I always said that after the temple of Mithras we would find the temple of Dolichenos 69 ? 2) The temple behind the house of strategists (behind the Redoubt) 70 is completely cleared. It is of great interest. Its three naves are dedicated: one to Zeus the Greatest, the second to some Eastern god identified with Hercules, and the third to Arsu, the god of caravans and camels. There are many sculptures and inscriptions in Greek, Palmyra and Pahlavi. It was the temple of the strategists, for it is the strategists who act as builders and initiators .71 3) Under the ruins of the Palmyra fondouq, Brown discovered a more ancient Palmyra temple, in his opinion, I century BC. This is one nave, modest, but with inscriptions in paint. It mentions three military deities of Palmyra and initiators with names in Palmyra and Greek .72 4) Toll 73 found five looted graves, not very rich, but interesting: one coin

compare Rostovtsev's letter to U. L. Westermann dated June 3, 1943 (Scythian Novel, pp. 355-356). However, it is difficult to say anything definite about the official status of Domitius Pompeianus, whose title is known only from a single inscription; cf. Preliminary Report IX, 3. pp. 93-94; Millar. Uk. soch. p. 187. According to Rostovtsev, the dux ripae of Dura cannot be identified with the one mentioned in Jerome (Chron. ad 271/2) Pompeianus dux cognomento Francus, who participated in Aurelian's campaign against Zenobia; cf. Preliminary Report IX, 3. pp. 35-36. Not. 24.

69 For the third-century AD temple of Jupiter Dolichenus, excavated in 1935-1936 by F. Comstock, see Preliminary Report IX, 3. pp. 97-134; cf. CRAI. 1936. pp. 144-145. The inscriptions from the temple were published by J. F. Gilliam (Preliminary Report IX, 3. pp. 107-114). Rostovtsev's letter refers to inscriptions No. 970-972, which represent dedications of centurions to Jupiter Dolichen. Originally worshipped in Commagene under the name of Zeus, in the second and third centuries this god was identified with Jupiter and became very popular (along with Mithras) among the soldiers of the Roman army. For the cult of Zeus Dolichenus in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, see Millar F. The Roman Near East. 31 SUN-AD 337. Cambr. (Mass.), 1993. P. 242-249.

70 This refers to the so-called "strategist's palace" (other names of this monument are also found in the literature: Redoubt Palace, strategion). The report on its excavations carried out in 1936-1937 by G. Pearson (he is also the author of the reconstruction of this palace, published by Rostovtsev in his book: Dura-Europos and Its Art. PI. V), was not published, see Matheson. Op. cit. P. 123, 126-127, 138-140. A new study of the monument and work on its conservation have recently been carried out by P. Lerish and his French and Syrian colleagues, see DEE II. P. 8-10, 261-270, 277-282; DEE III. P. 6-11, 29-48; DEE IV. P.55-80.

71 We are talking about the temple of Zeus the Greatest - one of the most ancient sanctuaries of Dura (dating back to the II century BC). The complex, which included the strategy and the temple of Zeus, was the "acropolis of the Macedonian colony" (a similar opinion was expressed by Rostovtsev, see CRAI. 1937. p. 199). Unfortunately, the field documentation on the excavations of the temple in 1936-1937 has been partially lost, and the report of F. It was never published (R. Dumesnil reports on the initial stage of these excavations in CRAI. 1936. p. 140-143), for which see Matheson. Op. cit. p. 121 p. For the results of recent studies of the temple, see Downey S. Excavations in the Temple of Zeus Megistos at Dura-Europos / / DEE IV. P. 107-116; Leriche. Op. cit. P. 889-913; Dirven. Op. cit. P. 114-115, 318-321. For the cult of the "caravan god" Arsu in Dura, see Downey. The Stone and Plaster Sculpture. P. 53-57, 195-199; Dirven. Op. cit. P. 88-98; on the local cult of Hercules, which may have been worshipped in the temple of Zeus Megistos as synnaos theos, see Downey S. B. The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Final Report III. Pt I. Fasc. 1: The Heracles Sculpture. New Haven, 1969. pp. 19-37, 60; for the temple sculptures of Zeus, see Downey. The Stone and Plaster Sculpture. P. 256-258. On the religious cults of Dura, see Welles S. V. The Gods of Dura-Europos / / Beitrage zur alten Geschichte und deren Nachleben. Festschrift F. Altheim / Hrsgb. R. Stiehl, N.E. Stier. V., 1969. Bd II. P. 50-65.

72 For the excavations of the Palmyra hazelnut, the administrative and religious center of the Palmyra colony in Dura, see CRAI. 1935. p. 285 ss.; 1936. p. 143-144; 1937. p. 197; cf. Rostovtzeff. Dura-Europos and Its Art. P. 23, 26. His research was carried out in 1935-1936 by G. Pearson and F. A. McCarthy. Brown. The presence of the Palmyra quarter in the city center is a testament to the close contacts of Dura-Europos with Palmyra. For the Palmyrians in Dura, see Dirven. Op. cit. P. 29-34.

73 Nikolay Pavlovich (?) Toll (1894-1985) - archaeologist and art critic, student of N. P. Kondakov, one of the founders of the Seminary Kondakovianum in Prague, in the 20-30s was a teacher at Charles University, in the 30s-director of the N. P. Kondakov Institute, where volumes 5-8 of the "Preliminary Reports" of the Yale expedition were published In 1934-1937, he participated in the excavations of Dura, and since 1939, he has been an employee of the Yale Gallery of Art (he moved to America and got a job at Yale with the help of Rostovtsev). For more information, see The Scythian Novel, pp. 516-529, where, in particular, two letters to him by Rostovtsev are published, which are kept in the archive of the N. P. Kondakov Archaeological Institute in Prague.

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Oroda, glazed vases, silver jewelry 74 . 5) Dumesnil probably keeps you posted on his excavations at Baghouz 75 . He came across many looted burials from the Parthian and Bronze Age, and set to work on a tell that seems to date back to about 2100 BC. Brown or Dumesnil will make a report for the Academy 76 . Unfortunately, I won't be coming to Paris this year. But perhaps after Brown returns, we will send a note about the inscriptions, especially those from Pretoria.

Nothing new here. Hendrickson just left me. He feels great, young and energetic. Things are bad in politics, but I'm not too interested. I would like to end my life and not become a victim of another Bolshevik revolution (as in Spain!). I wish you the same. Who will be the first? Without revolutions, even with all sorts of demagogues, you can somehow live. But you can't bargain with the Bolsheviks. My students ' work on the mithraeum is progressing. I can't say that they discovered a lot of new things, but by leading the seminar, I have the opportunity to see problems that were not raised before.

Don't forget me and report yourself. My wife sends you her warmest regards.

Devoted to you M. Rostovtsev

P.S. I forgot to mention the discovery of a very beautiful Palmyra-type gold brooch with a large intaglio (onyx) in the center with the image of Hercules in the garden of the Hesperides 77 .

5. Rostovtsev's letter to Kymon

[On the letterhead of the Connemara Hotel, Madras]

January 12, 1937

Dear friend!

So, we are in a new world, strange and mysterious 78 . Nowhere are you more aware of your ignorance than in similar situations. This is a new world, but what do I know about it? Great history, rich literature, amazing monuments, a huge country with a life and civilization unknown to us, thousands of books written about it by modern scientists, monuments, excavations, restoration work-all problems that you notice even if you are a layman! But I don't regret taking a few weeks off into this new world. Constantly studying and observing the same world, which you inevitably think is the only one and the best, you become a little limited.

74 N. P. Toll prepared a preliminary report on the excavations of the necropolis (see Preliminary Report IX, 2), and published final reports on glazed ceramics and bronzes (together with T. Frisch) from Dura (see Toll N. P. The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Final Report IV. Pt I. Fasc. 1: The Green Glazed Pottery. New Haven, 1943; Frisch T.G.. Toll N.P. The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Final Report IV. Pt IV. Fasc. 1: The Pierced Bronzes; the Enameled Bronzes; the Fibulae. New Haven, 1949). The most complete catalog of coins from Dura (including 14 coins of Orodes II - N 120-132 catalog) is published by: Bellinger A. R. The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Final Report VI: The Coins. New Haven, 1949.

75 The settlement of Baghouz in the Middle Euphrates Valley, which includes Tell IV-III millennium BC and necropolises of the Middle Bronze Age (XVI-XIV centuries) and Parthian times, R. Dumenil discovered and excavated at his own expense in 1934-1936; see Comte Du Mesnil du Buisson R. Baghouz. L' ancienne Corsote. Le tell archaique et la necropol de 1'age du bronze. Leiden, 1948; ср. Preliminary Report IX, 2. P. 140-150. PI. LXV, lf.

76 In 1933-1936, R. Dumesnil regularly reported on the excavations of Dura at the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, being its official representative in the American-French expedition; see CRAI. 1933. p. 193-203; 1934. p. 176-187; 1935. p. 275-285; 1936.p. 137-149.

77 This brooch, found in the palace of dux ripae, is now preserved in the Museum of Damascus. Rostovtsev repeated the interpretation of the brooch given in the letter in his book: Dura-Europos and Its Art. PI. Ill, 2; R. Dumesnil shared a similar point of view (see his report in CRAI. 1936. p. 145-146). A. Perkins, who published the brooch in Preliminary Report IX, 3. p. 58-62. PI. XII, dates it to the beginning of the third century AD and believes that it depicts a Daffodil looking at his reflection in the water against the background of a tomb and a rocky landscape.

78 For more information about Rostovtsev's "Indian journey", undertaken in January-April 1937, and his impressions of the culture and civilization of India and Southeast Asia, see Scythian Novel, pp. 185-191, 581-585.

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India, my dear friend, would be a revelation above all to you 79 . I saw paganism for the first time in a civilized frame - not among ruins or in reflection, but alive, forming the basis of the life of millions and millions. Go in the evening, especially on a Friday, to a large Hindu temple, where thousands of people: merchants, worshippers, ascetics, idle crowds, men, women, children; be present at the worship service, mentally so familiar to us: libations, offerings of flowers, fruits, incense-all alive and in action; listen to the shrill sacred music. music, and in some temples even to see blood sacrifices-all this and much more: hundreds of priests, prostitutes, dancers, etc. - was a real revelation for me. I like to see the things I study, and for the first time I observe the religious life of large pagan temples, though Eastern, and indirectly and with some modifications also Greek and Roman, Celtic and Thracian temples.

After a long voyage that was somewhat boring but not tiring, we disembarked in Colombo, Ceylon, and immediately immersed ourselves in the religious life of the Buddhist island. What an abundance and variety of monuments! After five days in Ceylon, we are now in South India with its majestic Hindu temples. Here everything is different and again-how much variety! Every day before our eyes - new temples. The day after tomorrow we will go to Bombay, from where we will make a trip to Central India, including Ajanta, Ellora, Sanchi, etc. We hope to reach the northern areas, all the way to Taxila, and finally end up with Angkor Wat and Java.

I wish I hadn't taken this trip so late. At the age of 66, I no longer have the fresh energy or desire for intellectual and aesthetic knowledge that I had when I first came to Syria .80 But in general, our health is fine, and I hope to complete the journey we started without much difficulty. The heat is not so oppressive. Today's tour, for example, was conducted under refreshing rain. Looking at the temples of South India in this rain is a bit strange. You won't have time to write to me while I'm in India, but I hope to see you again in Paris on June 81.

Devoted to you M. Rostovtsev

6. Kymon's Letter to Rostovtsev

Paris, November 9, 1937

Dear friend!

Thank you for your kind letter, which arrived in Paris just as I was about to leave for Rome. I agree with you that the notes I have written on Mitra should be postponed until the final report is prepared .82 Before the release of this volume, the new spelaeum 83 in Rome may still be discovered! I'll try to keep you updated on what's happening on Aventine 84 . I just skimmed through Tudor's book 85, which was left in Paris, but

79 Rostovtsev implies the professional side of Kymon's research interests - Mithraism and religions of the ancient era in general.

80 Rostovtsev is probably referring to his first trip to Palestine (and Syria?) in 1908 or 1912-1913.

81 On June 25, 1937, Rostovtsev gave a report at the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres on the excavations of Dura (see CRAI. 1937. pp. 195-204), which were finally curtailed in the summer of the same year due to the termination of their funding (see Matheson. Op. cit. pp. 138-140).

82 The final report on the Mithraeum of Dura was prepared by Cumont and Rostovtsev, but their French-language text, obtained by Yale in 1947 (the year of Cumont's death), was never published. An English translation of these materials was published later, see Proceedings of the First Congress of Mithraic Studies / Ed. by J. R. Hinnels. Manchester, 1975. P. 151-214.

83 The cave in which the sanctuary of Mithras was located.

84 For the Mithraeum on the Aventine, see Vermaseren M. J., Van Essen S. C. The Excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Prisca in Rome. Leiden, 1965.

85 Dumitru Tudor (1908 -?) was a Romanian archaeologist. The letter mentions his book: I cavalieri Danubiani. Roma, 1937, in which D. Tudor criticizes Rostovtsev for using the term "Frako-Mithraic horsemen" in relation to the images on lead tablets of the so-called Kabirs, whose cult was widespread in the Danubian provinces of the Roman Empire (Op. cit. p. 100 ss.; cp. Rostovtzeff М. Une tablette

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I have to pick it up again and try to figure it out. The merit of this collection is already at least in the fact that it presents a complete collection of monuments. I wonder if we should wait for a new edition of my Mithraic Mysteries until the volume on Dura with all the graffiti comes out and we can talk openly about the two new Roman mithraiums.

I am not surprised that you find it difficult to write your economic history of Hellenism 88 . Trying to synthesize is always a difficult task if the author does not limit himself to general comments. But what is the point of our private research if it does not lead to a synthesis? Only you are currently able to create a monument about which you have collected material, and your generalizing article on this topic is a large sketch that opens up long-term prospects for us .89 The fact that you have decided to re-explore and criticize things that once seemed indisputable to you is the best proof that you are opening up new paths. As you move forward. You are going further and further into conflict with common misconceptions. I am convinced that you will create something worthy of your Roman Empire 90 and show the scientific world a work that will bring you great success.

Now that "Egypt of the Astrologers" has been completed 91, I am trying to finish as quickly as possible the work on Zoroaster, which is much larger in volume. But David 92 is such a meticulous co-author, eager to explore everything in such depth, that these two volumes, which are already in print, I'm afraid won't be published until Easter. However, this does not matter, since now no one but us is engaged in such a long and hard work, which will have few readers .93

I hope to hear good news about you, Mrs. Rostovtseva and George Lincoln when Levi Della Vida 94 returns to Rome. I have no doubt that his lectures were

votive thraco-mithriaque du Louvre // MAI. 1923. 13. P. 385-415). Cumont published a review of this book, which Rostovtsev called in a letter to Cumont dated October 24, 1937, "a curious product of nationalist archaeology, so typical of the small Balkan countries", in Revue archeologique. 1938. 12. pp. 67-70.

86 One of the main works of Cumont (F. Cumont). Les Mysteres de Mithra. Bruxelles, 1900), which was reprinted twice in French (in 1902 and 1912); its German edition appeared in 1903 and was reprinted in 1911 and 1923; its English edition appeared in 1903 and was reprinted in 1956.

87 In addition to the aforementioned mithreum on the Aventine, Cumont refers to the mithreum of the Palazzo Barberini, discovered in 1936 (see Annihaldi II BCR. 1938. p. 251ss.; cf. Vermaseren M. J. Corpus inscriptionum et monumentorum religionis Mithriacae. I-II. La Haye, 1959- 1960. P. 168 ss. N 389 ss.; P. 390). Cumont made a report on these discoveries at the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres: Rapport sur une mission a Rome / / CRAI. 1945. P. 386-20.

88 We are talking about Rostovtsev's "book of life", which he worked on in the 30s: The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World. I-III. Oxf., 1941 (hereinafter-SEHHW). In a letter to Kymon dated October 24, 1937, Rostovtsev expressed dissatisfaction with his book and wrote:: "Generalizing work is always a torment, especially when dealing with such a little-known and difficult to understand period. Writing a book about political history is easy. But about social and economic! I would really like to know what is meant by the concept of "social history" - all or nothing? Economic history is a more specific concept, but unfortunately there is not enough data to write it." It is characteristic that Rostovtsev, as follows from the same letter, considered Kumon "partly responsible" for the book mentioned, which would not have been written without the latter's "moral support".

89 This refers to Rostovtsev's article: The Hellenistic World and Its Economic Development / / AHR. 1936. 41. P. 231-252.

90 Rostovtzeff M.I. The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire. Oxf., 1926.

91 Cumont F. L' Egypte des astrologues. Bruxelles, 1937.

92 Joseph Bidez (1867-1945) - Belgian historian and philologist, specialist in ancient philosophy and religion, as well as a researcher of early Byzantine literature, one of the closest friends of Cumont, with whom he was in close scientific cooperation; for more information about him, see Correspondence. P. 84-119.

93 The letter refers to the book: Cumont F., Bidez J. Les Mages hellenises. Zoroastre, Ostanes et Hystaspe d'apres la tradition grecque. I-II. P., 1938. Contrary to Cumont's gloomy predictions, the book was received with interest by scholars; cf. Correspondence. Passim.

94 For Giorgio Levi Delia Vida (1886-1967), the greatest representative of the school of Italian Orientalists, see Correspondence. pp. 270-273, 517-520. After losing his job at the university, J. Levi Della Vida worked at the Vatican Library of Oriental Manuscripts from 1931 to 1939.

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They are well received in America, and if any university could hire such an Orientalist, it would undoubtedly be an excellent acquisition.

I attended the opening of the Empire 95 Museum . You didn't lose anything by not being there. The ceremony was a fascistissima. It was only after the Duce and his guards had left the museum that the poor scientists huddled in the enclosed space were able to visit the halls. Nevertheless, I could see that Giglioli 96 and his staff had done a good job and collected an impressive number of casts, models, and photographs from all the Roman provinces.

I wish you cheerfulness and good health.

With warmest regards, Franz Cumont

7. Kymon's letter to Rostovtsev

Paris, June 25, 1939

Dear friend!

I am sincerely grateful for your two prints 97 . Your review of Economic Survey IV makes us lick our lips in anticipation of the sumptuous feast that your big book is about to set for us. The psychology of the Hellenistic world is a huge canvas that opens up vast horizons. I think your picture reflects reality well. But, dealing with an era from which almost no literature, in particular philosophical literature, has survived, you constantly feel constrained by the lack of documents.

This year, a marble head was found during excavations in Susa. It has an inscription of Parthian (judging by the shape of the signs) time: I hope that soon I will be able to tell you a little more about it .98

Yesterday I had dinner with Nock 99 and Festugier 100 (I wish you were with us). They

After being subjected to racist persecution, he went to the United States, where he taught at the University of Pennsylvania until 1949, when he returned to Rome. Kymon made every effort to help J. R. R. Tolkien. Levi Della was trying to find a job in America, and repeatedly discussed this issue in correspondence with Rostovtsev.

95 We are talking about "Mostra Augustea della Romanita" - fascist in its spirit (propaganda of the idea of reviving the former greatness of the Roman Empire) exhibition dedicated to the history and culture of ancient Rome from its origin to the Christian era and dedicated to the 2000th anniversary of the birth of Octavian Augustus (see Mostra Augustea della Romanita: catalogo. Roma, 1938). The exhibition was held in Rome from September 23, 1937 to September 23, 1938 and was a great success among Italian and foreign scientists and cultural figures; for more information, see Scriha F. Augustus im schwarzen Hemd. Die Mostra Augustea della Romanita in Rom 1937/38. Francfurt, 1995. Currently, the museum where this exhibition was held is called the Museum of Roman Civilization.

96 Giulio Quirino Giglioli (1886-1957) - pupil of Lanciani and Levi, director of the Etruscan Museum in Rome, specialist in the topography of ancient Italy, later Professor of archaeology and history of Greek Art at the University of Rome-La Sapienza. In 1934, Giglioli was elected as a member of the National Assembly, and later went to prison (for one year) for anti-fascist views. For more information, see Correspondence. P. 216.

97 Judging by the contents of this letter, as well as Rostovtsev's letter to Kymon dated June 12, 1939, we are talking about the following publications: Rostovzeff M. I. The Mentality of the Hellenistic World and the Afterlife / / Harvard Divinity School Bulletin. 1938. P. 5-25 (Ingersoll Lecture, read by Rostovtsev at Harvard on April 25, 1938) As well as Rostovtsev's review of the book: An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome. IV: Roman Africa. Roman Syria. Roman Greece. Roman Asia / Ed. T. Frank. Baltimore, 1938 / / American Journal of Philology. 1939. 60. P. 363-379 (this print with the author's donation inscription is kept in the Cumont Archive at the Belgian Academy in Rome).

98 См. Cumont F. Portrait d' une reine parthe trouve a Suse // CRAI. 1939. P. 330-341. We are talking about a sculptural portrait of the Muse, the wife of the Parthian king Phraates IV (37-2 BC), dating back to the Augustan era, and before that - his slave-concubine.

99 Arthur Darby Nock (1902-1963), professor at Harvard University, specialist in the history of ancient religions, was closely associated with Cumont, who introduced him to A.-J. Festugier, with whom A. D. Nock co-authored three volumes of the Corpus Hermeticum. I-II, IV. P., 1945, 1954); for more information about him, see Correspondence. P. 358-359.

100 (Rege) Andre-Jean Festugiere (1898-1982 ) - one of the closest students of Cumont, author of a biographical note about the teacher, published in: Bulletin de I'ACADEMIC royale de Belgique. 1930. 59. P. 310.

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They continue to publish their Hermetica. which will be accompanied by numerous comments. Nock returned from Germany, where the universities were empty - especially the Protestant theology departments (200 students instead of 800 in Berlin). In Rome, the government abolished the Academy of Lynches, leaving only its creation - the Academy of Italy 101 . In totalitarian states, a new class, uneducated and intolerant, has come to power. He distrusts the intellectuals he keeps on starvation rations .102 But all this will seem secondary if war can be avoided. Everyone considers the next two months to be crucial. It will be seen whether both dictators will risk taking a big gamble to avoid economic collapse. Now it is clear why, with such uncertainty about the future, the Hellenistic Greeks made Tykhe their great goddess.

1939 was a glorious year for French archaeology: the sensational discoveries of Montet at Tanis 104 , the School of Athens at Delphi 105, Schaefer [sic] at Ras Shamra 106, Parro on the Euphrates 107 . Reports of discoveries follow one another at the Inscription Academy, where everyone misses you as much as I do. But I understand that first of all you would like to complete your great work. It will honorably crown your work and your high service to science 108 .

Greetings from me to Mrs. Rostovtseva, George Lincoln and Wells 109 .

Sincerely yours, Franz Cumont

he dedicated his major work to Cumont: Revelation d'Hermes Trismegiste. P., 1950. For more information, see Correspondence. P. 205.

101 The Accademia dei Lincei was abolished in 1939, when it became part of the Reale Accademia d'ltalia. April 12, 1945 The Lynch Academy was restored, its president was Guido Castelnuovo (1865-1952; see Dizionario biografico degli Italian!. XXI. 1978. P. 825-828), and one of the first foreign scientists invited to cooperate with the Academy was Rostovtsev, who was notified by the City of Castelnuovo of his election as a "foreign member" on October 8, 1947. Rostovtsev's handwriting, written by his wife, is dated December 2, 1947 (see Bongard-Levin G., Marcone A. Testi e documenti / Rostovtzeff e l'Italia. pp. 34-35. N 14-15).

102 Cumont expressed a similar idea immediately after the end of the war in one of his letters to J. Karkopino (dated May 13, 1945, stored in the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres).: "The elite has stopped dying in everyday battles, and we are witnessing the general collapse of an inhumane and insidious regime that sought to end not only Christian charity, but also that humanitas. what the Roman Stoics once preached."

103 I.e. Hitler and Mussolini.

104 Pierre Montet (1885-1966) - French archaeologist, orientalist; about his excavations of Tanis (and before that-Byblos: According to a postcard addressed to P. Montet Cumont, the latter visited the excavations of Byblos in 1923 on his way to Dura) see Dictionnaire de la civilization phenicienne et punique. Turnhout, 1992. P. 299-300. Excavations of the ancient Egyptian Tanis, located in the Eastern Delta, took place from 1929 to 1949. For the discoveries of 1939, see Montet P. Rapport sur les fouilles de Tanis en 1939 / / CRAI. 1939. pp. 237-249, which, in particular, refers to the tombs of Osorkon II and Psouennes.

105 См. Roussel P. Rapport sur les travaux de 1'ecole francaise d'Athenes durant 1'annee 1938-1939 / / CRAI. 1939. pp. 269-286 (in particular, pp. 278-285 - about the excavations at Delphi).

106 Claude Schaeffer (1898-1982) - initially director of the Museum of Archaeology in Strasbourg, later Assistant curator of the Museum of National Antiquities in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, since 1929 head of excavations in Ras-Shamr-Ugarit; see Ugarit-Forschungen. 1979. 11 (= Festschrift Cl. Schaeffer). S. VII-IX; Revue d' assyriologie et d' archeologie orientales. 1983. 77. P. 1-2. For the discoveries made in 1939, see CRAI. 1939. pp. 305-308 (mostly about fortifications). For the history of these excavations, see Baldacci M. La scoperta di Ugarit: la citta-stato ai primordi della Bibbia. Casale Monferrato, 1996. P. 7-14.

107 Andre Parrot (1901-1980) - Assistant Curator of National Museums, from 1934 to 1974 Director of the French archaeological mission in Tell Hariri-Marie (on the Euphrates); see Parrot A. Mari, capitale fabuleuse. P., 1974; idem. L' aventure de I' archeologie. P., 1979 (мемуары); Revue d' assyriologie et d' archeologie orientales. 1980. 74. P. 98-99. For the discoveries of 1938-1939 (the 6th season of excavations in Marie), see CRAI. 1939. pp. 287-288.

108 A hint of SEHHW.

109 Charles Bradford Welles (1901-1970) - one of Rostovtsev's closest students and friends, Professor of Greek epigraphy and papyrology at Yale University, participant in the Dura excavations. For more information about his friendship and cooperation with Rostovtsev, see Scythian Novel, pp. 548-568.

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P.S. I have some doubts about your remark that wine imports were probably insignificant in Egypt due to high customs duties. I have lived for a long time in Belgium, a country where they drink a lot of wine, and the best, although the customs duties there are considerable. The only consequence of this tax was the absence of bad wines. I think that even the Alexandrians were not content with the mediocre produce of the Egyptian vineyards, but were drunk at their feasts with the best wines of Greece. For gourmets, good wine is never too expensive.

8. Rostovtsev's letter to Kymon

New Haven, Dec 15, 1939

My dear friend,

Merry Christmas and Happy New Year! These wishes seem a bit utopian in our time, but a good utopia is better than a dull pessimism. "Spes" is a kind goddess, life is hard without her. I haven't heard from you in weeks, but I hope to hear from you soon. There is nothing new in our life - just the same routine. The publication of my book 110 has slowed down considerably. But perhaps no one will have the time or inclination to read two thick volumes on "ancient" history. Although they would also have found something relevant - another illustration of the stupidity of the human race (homo sapiens!), which knows how to create, but surpasses itself in the art of destroying what it has created .111 However, no one needs our tears. Please let me know your news as soon as possible. Have you received Report VII-VIII and your printouts 112 ? They were sent to your Roman address. We are currently preparing Report IX 113 . In my workshop, I am working on the Acta Diurna of the XX Palmyra Cohort 114 . We have found new fragments, and the nature of this "daily routine" is becoming more and more clear. Amazing fact: in the Roman camp "sacramentum" It was indeed repeated every day in the presence of a special board of junior officers. You see, we also live in an atmosphere of military life.

With our best congratulations, dear Sofia and Mikhail Rostovtsev

"MONGOLUS SYRIO SALUTEM OPTIMUM DAT": CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN M.I. ROSTOVTZEFF AND F. CUMONT

G.М. Bongard-Levin, C. Bonnet, Yu.N. Litvinenko, A. Marcone

This is a preliminary review of correspondence between М. Rostovtzeff (89 letters to F. Cumont, all coming from the archives of Academia Belgica, Rome) and F. Cumont (67 letters to Rostovtzeff, most of them from the archive of Duke University, Durham, NC). The correspondence refers to the period between 1897 and 1941. Four letters by Rostovtzeff and four by Cumont are published here in chronological order covering the period from 1927 to 1939. The letters chosen for the publication reflect the most important of the correspondents' intellectual and scholarly activities. One of the main topics of their letters is, of course, the excavation at Dura Europos conducted by Yale University and Academic des inscriptions et belles-lettres in 1928- 1937. The correspondence also gives some valuable information on a series of other subjects connected with the history of ancient studies in 1920-40ies and deserving closer attention and further study. The notes on the letters comment the characters, publications and the interesting facts mentioned.

110 SEHHW.

111 This statement by Rostovtsev is one of the confirmations that even in the 1930s, his views on Hellenism were partly conditioned by the historian's reaction to the events and processes unfolding before his eyes. On the impact of the political upheavals of that time on the main ideas of the "Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World", see Scythian Novel, p. 588.

112 See note 64.65.

113 See note 68.

114 See R. Dura, N 82-89, and the comments of J. Gilliam and R. Fink on these papyri of the first half of the third century A.D., derived from the archives of the XX Palmyra Cohort and describing the life of the Roman army in Dura (R. Dura, p. 22-46).

115 Here: "military oath" (Lat.).

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