V. V. AKIMOV

Job Seeker

I. S. TIKHOTSKAYA

Candidate of Economic Sciences

Lomonosov Moscow State University

Keywords: Japan, solar energy, photovoltaics, "solar boom"

Solar energy is one of the most promising and fast-growing sectors of the global economy. According to the European Photovoltaics Association (EAF), it is on the way to becoming a "profitable" and even a "major source of electricity"¹.

Japan is one of the leaders in the production of solar panels (6.6% of the world's capacity). It is one of the top five countries developing solar energy (see Table). 1), which is also supported by a very high level of insolation** in the country - 4.3 - 4.8 kW, m2 per day2.

In 2010, 27.2 GW of solar power plants (SPP) were built in the world, and their capacity growth rate in just one year was 118%. At the end of 2011, the installed capacity of solar power plants in the world reached 69 GW, and in 2012 - 103 GW ³, i.e. in 2010 - 2012 it increased 3.8 times. No industry in the world, including telecommunications and computer manufacturing, has experienced such growth rates.

According to EAF head Winfried Hoffman, market mechanisms are beginning to play an increasingly important role in the industry, and "electricity coming from the roof of a residential building ... is cheaper than from an outlet," and large industrial solar installations are increasingly offering cheaper electricity than traditional power plants.⁴

The basis of solar energy is the use of solar radiation, i.e. inexhaustible and publicly available (free!) an energy source. This energy is environmentally friendly, although theoretically, in the very long term, it can lead to a change in the scattering capacity of the earth's surface, and therefore to climate change.

The great potential of the industry's development is due to the natural desire of each country to ensure national energy security, concern about the environmental consequences of using fossil energy sources and their sustainable increase in price.

* Photovoltaics - a method of direct conversion of sunlight into electricity using devices containing photosensitive elements (approx. author's note).

** Insolation - exposure of surfaces to sunlight (solar radiation) or the flow of direct solar radiation onto a horizontal surface (editor's note).

Table 1

Total photovoltaic capacity, 2012

Составлено по: Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2013 - 2017 - http://www.epia.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ Publications/GMO_2013_-_Final_PDF.pdf

Among the factors that increase the attractiveness of solar energy is the reduction in the cost of electricity generated in this industry as a result of innovations and improved technologies: if 20 years ago 1 kWh cost 1 euro, now it costs 10 euro cents, and sometimes less than ⁵. Solar installations are modular, which allows you to create generating stations of any capacity. They can work both connected to the public power grid and independently.

But there are also a number of problems in the development of the industry (although they are gradually becoming more and more technically solvable): dependence on the weather and time of day; difficulties in accumulating the received energy; high cost of installations and the need to clean reflective surfaces from dust.

According to the basic scenario of solar energy development predicted by EAF experts, by 2015 the total capacity of solar power installations in the world will increase by 2 times compared to 2012, and according to the optimistic forecast-by 2.5 times.⁶

Europe continues to be the leader in this industry, accounting for 70% of all solar power generation capacity. But its share of newly installed capacity has fallen from 74% in just one year (2011) to 54% in 2012). The largest increase in new capacity is observed in Asia and North America. In 2012-2017, 2/3 of the new capacities are expected to be installed outside Europe ⁷.

SOLAR POWER IN JAPAN

Japan was the first country to develop solar energy at the legislative level - back in 1994, the Ministry of Economy, Industry and Trade (MEPT) adopted a program to subsidize individual solar installations*. And since then, the industry has been actively developing. Since the introduction of renewable energy portfolio standards** in 2003, Japan's electricity generation from renewable sources has doubled ⁸ (although their share is still extremely low - 2-4% in the energy mix9), and solar energy has received a new impetus to increase capacity.

In 2004, Japan became the first country in the world to surpass the 1 GW solar capacity mark (see figure), but the most powerful solar power generator (38% of the world's installed photovoltaic capacity) remained only until 2005.10, when Germany came out on top.

Japan's early leadership was achieved through the above-mentioned measures to stimulate the development of the industry. In the mid-2000s, the development of solar energy in the country slowed down relatively for some time, which is partly due to the adoption in 2002 of a new energy program aimed at further increasing the capacity of nuclear power (equivalent to 17.5 GW) and gradually bringing its share in the energy balance from 30% in 2011 to 60%.

The use of photovoltaic installations in the residential sector has intensified since the adoption in 2009 of a system for purchasing excess electricity at fixed prices for a period of time guaranteed by the government - both of which are set by the MEPT for each financial year based on the recommendations of the Ad Hoc Tariff Determination Committee established for this purpose. In 2010, these innovations resulted in a significant increase (by 37.7%) in solar energy production.

The predominance of individual photovoltaic installations (80% of solar capacity in 2011) ¹¹ makes Japan very different from both Europe and America. They covered 900 thousand homes

* Initially, subsidies covered 50% of the cost of photovoltaic systems. See: 4,000 MV of New Solar PV capacity added in Japan - http://cleantechnica.com/2014/ 01/21/4-gw-new-solar-pv-capacity-added-japan/

** The strategic mechanism used by the Government to create a renewable energy market (approx. ed.).

Chart. Dynamics of photovoltaics development in Japan, 1992-2012

Compiled from: Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2013-2017...

(there are 27 million of them in total in Japan) ¹². In the future, thanks to the use of charging batteries and "smart" meters, photovoltaic systems in Japan are supposed to be turned into an ordinary "home appliance". This orientation is explained by the lack of large vacant areas necessary for the operation of industrial-scale systems. Land-based power plants and other local sources that are not part of the overall energy system accounted for only 20% in 2011,13 although their share increased to 30% in 2012 alone. 14

The early emergence of the photovoltaic market in Japan had a significant impact on the development of high-tech areas of its industry and the production of solar cells and solar panels. The companies that won from state preferences at the first stage are still leading the development of photovoltaics in the country - Sharp, Sanyo, Kyocera.

In July 2013, Sharp announced the upcoming production of semi-transparent solar panels worth $2-2.5 thousand - they can simultaneously serve as elements of buildings, replacing windows or being the outer side of a wall. In addition, they can be installed as awnings or awnings, protecting from sunlight, or as partitions between balconies.

But the company Kyocera is aimed at implementing a truly fantastic project, which will be discussed below.

NEW ENERGY STRATEGY

The accident at the Fukushima nuclear power plant in March 2011 led to the shutdown of all nuclear power plants in the country (as a result of which the problem of covering the electricity deficit arose) and to a revision of Japan's energy strategy: to the alleged refusal (not least under public pressure) from the use of nuclear energy, to plans to significantly increase the share of renewable sources in the country's energy balance.

Thanks to special programs for the development of renewable energy sources, and first of all the introduction of integrated tariffs* in July 2012, Japan can become the second largest solar energy market after China - so actively do they offer and implement "solar" projects. And in fiscal year 2013, * * Japan experienced a real "solar boom" - according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance***, instead of the originally planned commissioning of new capacities in the country's solar energy sector in the range from 3.2 to 4 GW, more than 6 GW was commissioned, including both industrial and municipal projects.¹⁵

As a result, the capacity of this sector has doubled in just one year: its share in all generating capacities in the country has also doubled to 5% ¹⁶.

In 2012, 12 Japanese companies were engaged in the production of solar panels: Sharp, Kyocera, Sanyo Electric Co. Ltd., Mitsubishi Electric (MELCO), Kaneka, Fuji Electric, Honda Soltec (part of Honda Motor Group), Solar Frontier (part of Showa Shell Sekiya Group), Clean Venture 21, PVG Solutions, Hi-nergy and Choshu Industry. Most of the companies produce first-generation silicon solar cells, mainly made of monocrystalline silicon.

At the same time, Japan is interested in attracting foreign photovoltaic companies to its market to speed up the supply and, consequently, the construction of installations. However, it remains a tough market for "non-Japanese" companies,

* For the first time, preferential tariffs for solar (and wind) energy were applied in 1978 in the United States, and now they are practiced in more than 50 countries. author's note).

** Starts in the country on April 1 and ends on March 31 of the following year (author's note).

*** Established in 2004 in London, the small company was purchased in 2009 by Bloomberg, a reputable source of statistical and analytical data for professional businessmen and financiers.

Table 2

Japan's main solar power plants commissioned in 2013

Compiled by the author from: http://www.jpea.gr.jp; http://japandailypress.com/; www.eurobserv-er.org; www.epia.org; www.photon-magazine.com; www.renewableenergymagazine.com

since Japanese consumers prefer to buy solar panels (like everything else) produced in their own country.

It is even more difficult to get through to the buyer in the Japanese market of inverters (energy converters) due to strict certification rules, which are also constantly being tightened ¹⁷. There are often situations when a product needs to be upgraded before it can pay for itself. Thus, the inverter market today is a "bottleneck" that negatively affects the pace of development of the industry as a whole.

After the accident at the Fukushima nuclear power plant and the introduction of a new tariff, active construction of land-based industrial solar power plants began. Three solar power plants were launched (see Table 2): the Ukishima Solar Power Plan (7 MW), the Ogishima Solar Power Plant (13 MW) and the Komekurayama Solar Power Plant (10 MW), and in October 2012, the installation of 1.8 GW of photovoltaic capacity was approved, 341 MW of them in Hokkaido.¹⁸ As a result, as of November 2013, they accounted for ²⁷% of all new installed capacitys19.

One of the proposed projects is the Kagoshima Nanatsujima solar power plant with a capacity of 70 MW in Kagoshima, launched in November 2013 by Kyocera. It is Japan's largest sea-based solar power plant. The environmentally friendly energy generated on it is supplied to the national grid through a local utility company ²⁰. The power plant is located close to the coast and does not interfere with existing sea and land routes. A panoramic observation deck has been built in the neighborhood. The displays provide information on environmental issues and the scientific basis of photovoltaic energy production - what is renewable energy and what is its role in creating a low-carbon society. On the Atsumi Peninsula*, in the city of Takhara, one of the largest solar power plants with a capacity of 77 MW21 is expected to be built in ²⁰¹⁴.

INDUSTRY CHALLENGES: CURRENT AND FUTURE

So, in Japan - "solar boom". Large power plants with a capacity of more than 100 MW have already been commissioned or are currently under construction: SoftBank Tomatoh Abira Solar Park-in Hokkaido (111 MW; construction began in October 2013); 400 MW - in Sa-sebo (built by Germany's Photovolt Development Partners GmbH); 250 MW - in Setouchi; 100 MW-in Watari; 120 MW - in Icu ²².

The "solar boom" was a consequence of the Japanese government setting an unprecedented high tariff for the purchase of electricity generated by solar power plants on July 1, 2012: 42 yen per kWh (then-about $0.53, now - about $0.42), adjusted downward in April 2013 due to falling prices for solar cells. In accordance with this tariff, the purchase price is fixed for 20 years in advance.

The top-down solar energy boom has led to a shortage of solar cells in the country, despite the fact that Japan ranks 3rd in the world in their production. Already, half of the total volume of solar cells consumed is imported, although back in 2012, the import of solar cells was 17-20%. In April-May 2013, and only large power plants commissioned 1 GW of installed solar capacity, while a total of 1.23 GW was commissioned in the two months indicated ²³.

In July 2012, immediately after the new tariff was approved, Japanese homeowners installed 300 MW of capacity (i.e. approximately 10 MW per day), and in February 2013-837 MW, or 30 MW per day. Large power plants commissioned 53 MW of capacity in the same month, and 420 MW in ^February 201324. Solar energy is not developing at this rate anywhere else in the world.

As a result, there are problems of mismatch between social and technological progress. What is the reason for them?

Let's turn to the beginning of the Meiji Era (the period in the history of Japan from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912, when Mutsuhito was emperor). In 1885, Tokyo Electric Light Co bought electrical equipment in Germany. However, it had strong positions and connections only in the eastern part of the country. Therefore, in the west, where the Osaka Electric Lamp was already present, it was not allowed. Osaka Electric Lamp, in turn, acquired equipment from the American General Electrics. As a result, Japan's power grid has acquired a unique, mixed, "Euro-American" character: in the north-east of the country, the current frequency is -50 Hz (as in Europe), and in the south-west - 60 Hz, as in the ^United States25.

Between the two power systems, there are three frequency converters with a total capacity of 1 GW - this is very small with such a need for electricity. During the 2011 earthquake, there was a surplus of electricity in the western part of the grid - they could not redistribute it to the eastern part, where losses amounted to 9.7 GW ²⁶.

As part of the" solar boom " in 2013, due to the high cost of land in the country, the mass placement of solar cells occurs mainly in Hokkaido, where, due to the low, by Japanese standards, average annual temperature (approx. 8.0°C), their development took place later (this island became part of Japan only in 1872).) and the population is still small.

It is for this reason that Hokkaido is a leader in the availability of photovoltaic power plants, and in the future it is planned to install additional systems. But the level of energy consumption here is only 3% of the country-wide ²⁷. Therefore, there is a problem: where to transfer the excess electricity - the eastern part of the country can not consume so much itself, and there are no sufficiently powerful cables.

As a result, as early as April 2013, only a quarter of the electricity produced by such a large company as Hokkaido Electric Power went to the consumer, while the remaining three quarters remained unclaimed, which led to huge financial losses.²⁸

To solve the problem, the Hokkaido regional grid has already begun construction of the world's largest storage substation, which can store 60 MW. Its cost is estimated at $294 million. As a result, by 2015, this region will be able to consume 10% more solar energy than today, but there are concerns that by then its production will also grow and may well exceed 10%. Therefore, the local energy department stated that it "will continue to ask businesses to look for other places to place solar panels", i.e. not in Hokkaido ²⁹.

As a result, there is a tendency to switch to batteries that concentrate sunlight and receive more electricity in the same area. Large industrial companies, such as Nissan, are renting out their space to growing solar power plants across the country. Thus, the industry hopes to compensate for the rise in the cost of electricity by getting its own share of the "solar boom".

* 80 km away, on the shelf, a year ago, attempts to extract gas from the methane hydrate layer at a depth of approximately 1 thousand meters were successfully completed (author's note).

In order to be able to transfer electricity to another part of the country, it is necessary to separate the capacity for transporting electricity from generation and sales capacity - this will put an end to more than a century of fragmentation of the energy system.

The Government of Shinzo Abe in October 2013 revised the law aimed at liberalizing the energy market in 2015-2020. In accordance with it, a service for monitoring the supply and demand of electricity in different regions of the country will be created - it will have the authority to give utilities an order for additional energy supply in case of its shortage, and if necessary, even by increasing electricity generation. This service will also plan the production of highly variable renewable energy in order to distribute it more efficiently and widely.³⁰

However, creating such an organization and respecting the interests of all stakeholders is a long process. In this regard, we can talk about the likelihood of problems for energy companies. During the day, many consumers will use the energy generated by their own solar panels, and it will be impossible to sell them expensive network energy (due to the growing share of solar energy, the price for it will inevitably rise). As a result, there will be an underutilization of solar cell capacities.

And if the share of solar energy in the structure of electricity generation in the country reaches 20%, solar power plants will not be able to sell the bulk of energy to consumers, since there will be no one to store it for night use.

NEW SOLAR ENERGY PROJECTS

"Moon ring". The Japanese construction corporation Shimizu, which has more than 200 years of history and now operates under the motto "Today's work-tomorrow's legacy"*, has developed the original concept of "Moon Ring". Its essence is the development of solar energy on the Moon with the help of advanced space technologies and the transmission of electricity to Earth.³¹ The company's website states: "The transition from using limited resources to unlimited use of clean energy is the" blue dream " of all mankind. LUNA RING, our lunar solar power generation concept, translates this dream into reality with original ideas and advanced space technologies. " ³²

The implementation of such a project (the company hopes to do this by 2035) would make it possible to get clean energy without interruptions, regardless of weather conditions, and use it anywhere in the world.

In accordance with this plan, a ring consisting of solar panels that generate a constant flow of energy will be created along the entire length of the Moon's equator (11 thousand km). It will be sent via cables to transmitting stations located on the front side of the Moon. Those convert energy into microwave radiation and laser light rays and transmit it to the Earth with the help of antennas with a diameter of 20 km.

On Earth, the reverse conversion of the received energy into electrical energy will be performed, which will be supplied to the power supply networks or used to produce hydrogen - for storage or use as fuel.

During the construction of this station, the corporation plans to widely use robots. Controlled remotely from the Ground, they will work around the clock-leveling and preparing surfaces, assembling mechanisms and structures, parts of which will be delivered from the Ground.

On the Moon, water will be extracted for the hydrogen engines of spacecraft, and lunar rocks will be used to produce cement, concrete, bricks, glass and other materials.

This project involves uninterrupted production of energy and its transportation to any place on Earth. Thus, the energy needs of all countries are fully covered and the cherished goal of humanity - the creation of a clean energy society-is realized.

The term "information society", first proposed in the 1960s in Japan, and then the term" recycling society", was associated with something utopian, unreal. However, Japan has repeatedly demonstrated to the whole world how "miracles" come to life. Therefore, a new project should not be characterized as something impossible.

"Village of the Future". In the coastal city of Minamisoma in Fukushima Prefecture, which was contaminated in 2011 as a result of an accident at a nuclear power plant, a real, "terrestrial" project is being developed - a model of the village of the future. It is carried out in an area where two-thirds of the agricultural land is in the evacuation zone due to nuclear contamination. 120 photovoltaic batteries producing 30 kW of energy**are already located in the newly created village.

Central to the project is what the Japanese call "solar energy sharing" - growing crops under raised solar panels. One such crop - rapeseed-has already been grown: rapeseed oil does not contain pollutants, even if the plants contain radioactive isotopes, such as caesium. The project is supported by generous tariffs set by the government. Revenues from the resulting crops and energy will be reinvested in the project.

Its initiators hope that this model will be used

* This is a translation from English, and closer to the original Japanese translation of the slogan :" To convey the work that children can be proud of." The corporation is known for its participation in lunar exploration projects, as well as the creation of such concepts as an eco-friendly island, a pyramid city and a space hotel.

* * A plan is also being developed for the installation of wind turbines in some places, and if funding is provided, recreational and educational institutions will be created there, as well as an astronomical observatory (author's note).

farmers whose livelihoods were disrupted by nuclear contamination in 2011.33 There is concern in the country that if farmers in these areas decide to sell their land, many localities will disappear from the map of ^the country. The renewable energy village model offers a way out of a difficult situation: the implementation of ^{the project can help to save both land and human settlements, and by generating income from two sources at the same time, even lead to higher well-being than it was before 201134}

And Kyocera intends to implement a project worth $89 million to provide agricultural producers throughout Japan (in 80 localities) with 30 MW of energy generated from solar energy. The project will be implemented by the All-Japan Association of Agricultural Cooperatives in cooperation with Mitsubishi³⁵. This project is part of the association's program, which aims to install local solar power systems with a total capacity of 200 MW to give a new impetus to the development of the agricultural sector and rural settlements.

The prefectural authorities are also interested in developing renewable energy sources, actively promoting the development of solar energy. 17 prefectures out of 47 already have local solar installations with a capacity of at least 1 MW, or they are planned to be installed. Thanks to the efforts of local governments, the total capacity of local installations will be 100 thousand kW. This is equivalent to a monthly heat demand of 30 thousand cubic meters. households, while commercial solar power plants produce only 70 thousand kW of electricity.

* * *

As a result of the revision of the solar energy subsidy program and the introduction of a tariff four times higher than the global average, Japan's solar capacity is rapidly growing - the so-called "solar boom" is underway, thanks to which it has overtaken Germany and become the world leader in photovoltaics in value terms. Investment is growing in both domestic and commercial photovoltaic systems: 3,993 GW of capacity was installed in the country in just 7 months of 2013. As a result, the total capacity exceeded 11.2 GW ³⁶.

Despite the fact that the fragmentation of the country's energy system may lead to the difficulties noted above for companies generating electricity from sunlight, it can be assumed that photovoltaic and solar thermal capacities will be increased in Japan. The continued success of solar energy development in Japan will depend on the effectiveness of reforms aimed at improving the efficiency of energy policy.

¹ Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2013 - 2017 -http://www.epia.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/GMO_2013 _-_Final_PDF.pdf

² http://solargis.info/

³ Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2013 - 2017...

⁴ Ibidem.

⁵ Ibid.

⁶ Ibid.

⁷ Ibid.

⁸ Feed-in tariff scheme in Japan - http://www.meti.go.jp/english /policy/energy_environment/renewable/pdf/summary201207.pdf

⁹ Independent statistics and analysis. U.S. Energy Information Administration. Japan. Overview - http://www.eia.gov/countries/ cab.cfm?fips-ja

¹⁰ Japan lags behind Europe in solar power // The Daily Yomiuri, 05.10.2007.

¹¹ The Reign of Residential PV in Japan - http://www.greentech-media.com/articles/read/the-reign-of-residential-pv-in-japan

¹² Feed-in tariff scheme in Japan...

¹³ The Reign of Residential PV in Japan...

^{Yamada H.} 14 National Survey Report of PV Power Application in Japan 2012, International Energy Agency cooperative programme on photovoltaic power systems, May 2013.

^{Watanabe C.} 15 Feed-in tariffs ready to make Japan world No. 2 solar market after China // Japan Times, 10.04.2013.

¹⁶ www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/japan-adds-nearly-4-gw-of-pv-capacity-_100013 954/#axzz2xZLnBBC9

¹⁷ Ibidem.

¹⁸ Mega Solar Power Plants may be excessively concentrated in Hokkaido - http://business.highbeam.com/435557/article-lGl-311474678/mega-solar-power-plants-may-e xcessively-concentrated

^{Yamada H.} 19 Op. cit.

²⁰ News Releases. Kyocera starts operation of 70MW Solar Power Plant, the largest in Japan - http://global.kyoera.com/news/2013/ 1101 nnms.html

²¹ One of Japan's largest Mega Solar Projects to be built in Aichi - http://www.mitsubishicorp.com/jp/en/pr/archive/2013/html/0000018 356.html

²² Japan's largest Mega Solar Project launched in Oita -http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20131004/307449/7S T-msbe

²³ Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2013 - 2017...

²⁴ Ibidem.

^{Gordenker A.} 25 Japan's incompatible power grids - www.japantimes. co.jp/news/2011/07/19/reference/japans-incompatible-power-grids/#.UznNtKh_uSo

²⁶ Japan Solar Energy soars, but grid needs to catch up -http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2013/08/130814-japan-solar-energy-incenti ve/

²⁷ Ibidem.

²⁸ http://www.hepco.co.jp/english/

²⁹ Japan's growth in renewable energy dims as nuclear strives for comeback - http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/politics/AJ2013 07070012

³⁰ Monitor power industry reform - http://www.japantimes. co.jp/opinion/2013/11/24/editorials/monitor-power-industry-reform/#.UvkRqWJ_s8o

³¹ The Energy paradigm shift opens the door to a sustainable society - http://www.shimz.co.jp/english/theme/dream/lunaring.html

³² Tsuki Taye hatsuden (Solar Power Generation on the Moon)- http://www.shimz.co.jp/theme/dream/lunaring.html

³³ http://www.newscientist.com/artiele/dn24816-renewable-villa-ge-offers-lifeline-to-fukushima -farmers.html?cmpid=RSS%7CNSNS% 7C2012-GLOBAL%7Conline-news#.Ut_WNdLHldi

³⁴ Ibidem.

³⁵ Kyocera to back $89m project to provide solar energy for Japan's farmers - http://japandailypress.com/kyocera-to-back-89m-project-to-provide-solar-energy-for-japans-f armers-1830766/

³⁶ Japan enjoys solar boom as nearly 4GW of capacity comes online. 22.01.2014 - http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/2324391/japan-enjoys-solar-boom-as-nearly-4gw-of- capacity-comes-online

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